Unification of Italy | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Liberation and Unification of Italy (1850 – 1870)

Cavour Appointed as Prime Minister:

• Cavour was born in 1810 to a Piedmontese noble family. Initially a military engineer, he later focused on improving his estate and became an accomplished agriculturist.
• His interest in English political ideas reflected his liberal beliefs.
• In 1847, Cavour helped establish the newspaper “Risorgimento,” which became the voice of the Italian National Movement.
• He persuaded King Charles Albert of Sardinia to grant a constitution and lead a military campaign against Austria in 1848. After the campaign failed, Charles abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel.
• Cavour served briefly in Parliament and held various ministerial positions before becoming Prime Minister in 1852.
• He formed a coalition to bring down the previous government and was reluctantly accepted by the King as Prime Minister.
• Despite initial setbacks, Cavour’s leadership transformed Piedmont into a major power in Italy by the time of his death.
• He is remembered as a key figure in the movement for Italian unification.

Cavour’s Policy:

• Cavour was a liberal who supported free trade, freedom of opinion, and secular governance. However, he opposed republicans and revolutionaries, fearing their potential to disrupt societal order.
• He believed that only Piedmont-Sardinia could effectively lead the struggle for Italian independence and unification, envisioning a unified Italy under a monarchy.
• Cavour emphasized the need for social, economic, spiritual, and intellectual improvements in addition to political reforms.
• He aimed to transform Piedmont into a model state, making it a leader in political, social, economic, and spiritual aspects, thus earning the respect and recognition of other Italian states.
• Cavour believed that a reformed Piedmont would attract patriots from all over Italy and lead the nation to its destined greatness.
• He envisioned Piedmont as a gathering point for all of Italy’s living forces, capable of leading the country to a high destiny.

Economic Reform:

• Cavour believed that economic progress was essential before political change and initiated various measures to address economic issues.
• He promoted agricultural and industrial growth, expanded trade and commerce through free trade policies, and emphasized the benefits of railroad construction.
• Cavour was a strong advocate for transportation improvements, supporting the construction of numerous railroads and canals. He also reorganized the budget and increased taxation.

Internationalizing the Issue of Italy and Austria as the Main Enemy:

• Cavour, having witnessed the experiences of patriots over the years, was committed to the unity and independence of Italy.
• He viewed Austria as the primary oppressor of Italy, recognizing it as the greatest obstacle to Italy’s liberty and unity. He understood that the patriots could not achieve their goals without expelling Austria from Italy.
• Unlike Mazzini, who believed that only Italians could complete the unification, Cavour acknowledged that Italian unity could not be realized as long as powerful nations like Austria and France could interfere.
• Cavour’s significant achievement was moving away from old methods of plots and insurrections, devising new methods and tactics instead.
• He sought the sympathy and active support of the Great Powers, understanding that a small state like Sardinia-Piedmont could not face Austria’s superior strength alone or with the help of other parts of Italy.
• The Italian question involved complex issues, including the interests of princes and the position of the Pope. These problems required international cooperation for their resolution, as they necessitated substantial modifications to the post-Congress of Vienna settlement of Italy.
• Cavour aimed to make the issue of Italy a European concern, lifting it out of Austria’s domestic policy and internationalizing it.
• In other words, he was the first to internationalize the problem of Italy.

Reorganization of the Army:

• Cavour battlegrounds on the belief that Italy's freedom and unity could only be achieved through war, he recognized the necessity of strengthening the military against Austria for this purpose.
• Therefore, the military organization of Piedmont became a central element of Cavour's policy.

Reform in the Church:

• As Prime Minister, Cavour implemented policies that encouraged economic development, introduced some liberal reforms in politics, and endorsed changes that, in certain aspects, compromised the influence of the Churc
• Piedmont-Sardinia had already abolished ecclesiastical courts and introduced civil marriage in 1848, measures that faced strong opposition from Pope Pius IX.
• Cavour's new policies mandated the closure of about half of the monastic houses in Sardinian territories and curtailed excessive privileges granted to the Church.
• He aimed to separate religion from politics, as the clerics were strongly opposed to Italian unity under Sardinian leadership. He advocated for the principle of "A free church in a free state."
• In all these initiatives, Cavour worked through Parliament, which became the center of the nation's political life.
• Under Cavour's leadership, Piedmont gained a commanding position in Italy.

Cavour and the Crimean War:

• “Realpolitik” is the idea that politics should be conducted based on a realistic assessment of power and the self-interest of individual nation-states, often pursued by any means necessary. Cavour skillfully employed this concept.
• The material reforms initiated by Cavour were merely a prelude to the second phase of his plan, which aimed at uniting Italy under the House of Savoy, achievable only with foreign assistance.
• The Crimean War (October 1853 – February 1856) was a conflict where Russia was defeated by an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia.
• The Crimean War was part of the broader Eastern Question, with the immediate cause involving the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, controlled by the Ottoman Empire. France advocated for the rights of Catholics, while Russia championed the rights of Orthodox Christians.
• The Crimean War presented Cavour with a golden opportunity. In 1855, as prime minister of Sardinia, he aligned the kingdom with Britain and France against Russia, using the peace conference to gain international attention for the cause of Italian unification.
• Cavour sought allies to assist in the unification of Northern Italy, having no interest in the Eastern Question or any conflict with Russia. He seized the opportunity to join England and France against Russia to secure an alliance with the great powers, which would obligate them to assist in the future.
• The Italian question involved complex issues, including the interests of princes and the Pope, which could not be resolved without international cooperation. These issues required significant modifications to the international arrangement established by the Congress of Vienna. Therefore, Cavour aimed to make it a European concern by removing it from Austria's domestic policy.
• In essence, Cavour was the first to internationalize the problem of Italy.

Cavour Wins Over Napoleon III:

• The next step in Cavour's strategy was to gain Napoleon III's support for the Italian cause. The French Emperor, having fought as a Carbonari in 1831, was sympathetic towards Italy.
• During the Paris peace conference, Cavour found Britain and France sympathetic but unwilling to oppose Austria, as any move towards Italian independence would threaten Austria's territories in Lombardy and Venetia.
• Private discussions between Napoleon III and Cavour after the conference indicated that Napoleon could potentially support Italy, although he was not yet committed.
• Cavour skillfully capitalized on Napoleon's sympathy, and an unexpected event—the attempt on Napoleon III's life by an Italian named Orsini—furthered Cavour’s cause.
• On January 14, 1858, Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III, generating widespread sympathy for the Italian unification effort and significantly impacting Napoleon.
• Initially, this incident seemed to jeopardize Cavour's plans, but he managed to turn it to his advantage. He argued that such revolutionary acts were the result of desperation caused by oppressive rule, not the actions of the majority.
• Orsini’s appeal to the Emperor, written while awaiting trial, reinforced Cavour's arguments. Orsini urged Napoleon to remember that as long as Italy remained unfree, the peace of Europe and the Emperor would be meaningless. He urged the Emperor to free Italy, promising the blessings of twenty-five million people in return.
• Moved by Orsini's words, Napoleon was inspired to act. He decided to assist Piedmont against Austria to prevent broader revolutionary activities in Italy.
• Following a secret meeting at Plombières in 1858 (the Compact of Plombières), Napoleon III and Cavour agreed on a treaty of alliance against Austria. France would support Sardinia-Piedmont if attacked, leading to Austria's expulsion from Lombardy and Venetia, which would be added to Piedmont.
• Naples and Rome would be left untouched, and the rest of Italy would become a separate Kingdom. In return for his support, Napoleon would receive Nice and Savoy, and the Franco-Sardinian alliance would be strengthened by the marriage of Victor Emmanuel's daughter to Napoleon's cousin.
• This secret alliance benefited both nations, aiding Sardinia-Piedmont’s goal of unifying Italy under the House of Savoy while weakening Austria, a significant adversary of Napoleon III's French Empire.

Austro-Sardinian War, 1859

(Second Italian Independence War of 1859. The first was the 1848 Revolution.)

• The nine-month period between the Pact of Plombières and the outbreak of the Austro-Sardinian War was marked by increasing tension and difficulty for Count Camillo di Cavour, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Cavour's Dilemma:

• Cavour faced the challenge of finding a pretext for war.
• He realized that he could not secure French assistance unless Austria attacked first.
• To provoke Austria, Cavour engaged in military maneuvers near the border, imposed hostile tariffs, launched press attacks, and stirred discontent in Lombardy and Venetia.
• His goal was to initiate the conflict before Napoleon III of France changed his mind about intervention.

International Pressure and Austrian Ultimatum:

• Britain, Prussia, and Russia suggested an international congress, likely aiming for the disarmament of Piedmont.
• Napoleon III was initially reluctant to go to war due to public opposition in France and agreed to British proposals for disarmament.
• In a moment of despair, Cavour even considered suicide but eventually had to agree to the demobilization of Sardinia.
• However, Austria inadvertently saved the situation for Piedmont by issuing an ultimatum on April 23, demanding immediate disarmament or war.
• This move painted Austria as the aggressor and played into Cavour's hands.

Outbreak of War:

• By rejecting the Austrian ultimatum, Cavour could appeal to France and present Piedmont as the defender rather than the aggressor.
• Napoleon III, who was hesitant about an aggressive war, was satisfied with this turn of events.
• Cavour famously declared, “The die is cast, we have made history,” as war broke out in 1859.

Military Campaign:

• Austrian forces anticipated a swift victory over the weaker Sardinian army before French reinforcements could arrive.
• However, the Austrian commander, Field Marshal Gyulay, was indecisive, and his slow advance faltered.
• Franco-Piedmontese forces advanced into Lombardy, achieving significant victories at the Battle of Magenta and the Battle of Solferino.
• Simultaneously, Italian volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi cleared Lombardy of Austrian forces, contributing to the overall success.

Treaty of Villafranca:

• The victories at Magenta and Solferino left Franco-Piedmontese forces in control of Lombardy, with Venice within reach and Austrian expulsion seeming certain.
• However, concerns about a potential Prussian intervention and the risk of an overly strong Piedmontese state led Napoleon to sign a separate peace with Austria in the Treaty of Villafranca on July 11, 1859.

Key Provisions of the Treaty

• Austria ceded Lombardy to Sardinia but retained Venetia.
• The rulers of Central Italy (Tuscany, Parma, and Modena), expelled by revolution shortly after the war began, were to be restored.
• An Italian federation was to be formed under the presidency of the Pope.

Aftermath and Reactions:

• The Treaty of Villafranca, negotiated by Napoleon without consulting his Sardinian allies, caused outrage in Sardinia-Piedmont.
• Cavour resigned in protest but returned later.
• Despite the treaty, its terms were never implemented. The central Italian states were occupied by Piedmontese forces, who refused to restore the previous rulers.
• Napoleon did not enforce the treaty’s terms, and the Austrians were left frustrated by the French failure to do so.
• Initially, Napoleon did not pursue his claims to Nice and Savoy as agreed in the Pact of Plombières.

Reasons for Napoleon's Decision:

• Prussian Concerns: Prussia might have intervened on behalf of Austria, as a decisive French victory could threaten Prussian security.
• Heavy French Losses: French casualties were significant, and Austrian forces were well-entrenched in Venetia.
• Domestic Issues in France: The situation in France was becoming dire, with the Catholic party opposing the war due to the potential suffering of the Pope.
• Italian Nationalism: The defeat of Austria had sparked a wave of nationalism in north-central Italy, leading to the expulsion of local rulers and demands for union with Piedmont. A united Italy would pose a challenge to French interests.
• Napoleon found himself in a situation beyond his expectations. Instead of a divided Italy under French influence, he faced the prospect of a united Italy, which could be a threat to France.

Integration of Lombardy and Victor Emmanuel's Judgement:

• Lombardy was integrated into the Kingdom of Sardinia, but the Treaty of Villafranca was a bitter disappointment for Italians, shattering their hopes for complete independence.
• Cavour was furious and urged King Victor Emmanuel II to reject the treaty, but his advice was ignored, and he resigned.
• King Victor Emmanuel's judgment proved wiser than Cavour's at this moment.
• He recognized that it was better to accept what was achievable and wait for future opportunities rather than jeopardize the situation.
• He understood that the fate of Italy was now in the hands of the people, not diplomats.
• Subsequent events validated his decision.

British Support and French Confusion:

• British policy, led by Liberal ministers like Palmerston and Russell, was openly supportive of Italian aspirations.
• These ministers advocated for non-intervention, believing that the Italian people should determine their own future.
• During this challenging period, it was fortunate for Italy that the English Government was a strong advocate for Italian unity.
• Napoleon was perplexed as he could not promote the annexationist movement without violating the Treaty of Zurich, nor could he suppress it by force due to British opposition.

Annexation of Central Duchies and Papal States:

• The news of the Austrian evacuation of Lombardy triggered popular uprisings in the central duchies.
• Parma, Modena, and Tuscany revolted and expelled their rulers.
• In Romagna, a part of the Papal States, people rejected the Pope's temporal authority.
• These states established provisional governments and unanimously voted for fusion with Piedmont.
• Given the circumstances, Napoleon found it increasingly difficult to restore the expelled rulers.
• In 1860, with the approval of France and Britain, the central Italian states — Duchy of Parma, Duchy of Modena, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and the Papal States — were annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia.
• These states had unanimously voted for fusion with Piedmont in a plebiscite.
• This marked the second step towards the unification of Italy, following the annexation of Lombardy.

Napoleon's Compromise:

• Napoleon, unable to enforce the restoration of expelled rulers as stipulated in the treaty with Austria, became amenable to the annexation of the central duchies when France received its delayed reward of Savoy and Nice.
• The latter decision was strongly opposed by Garibaldi, an Italian national hero from Nice, and directly led to Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily, which would ultimately complete the preliminary unification of Italy.
• With the exception of Venetia, the northern part of Italy was now united and free from foreign rule.

Criticism of Cavour's Agreement to Surrender Nice and Savoy

• Cavour faced harsh criticism for agreeing to the surrender of Nice and Savoy.
• In England, there was strong opposition to the expansion of French territory.
• Nice held sentimental value for Garibaldi, who felt betrayed by Cavour's decision, as it made him a foreigner in his own birthplace.
• However, Cavour's decision was driven by broader political considerations. He believed that refusing the bargain could provoke French-Austrian intervention, and he doubted that England would support its protest with military action.

Next Phase of Italian Unification

Following the unionist movement in the North, a similar movement emerged in South Italy. After the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchies of Modena and Parma, and Romagna to Piedmont in March 1860, Italian nationalists set their sights on the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This kingdom encompassed all of southern mainland Italy and Sicily and was seen as the next crucial step towards the unification of all Italian lands.

• The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, comprising Naples and Sicily, was under the rule of the Bourbon monarchs and was rife with discontent and secret societies.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi, originally from Nice, harbored resentment towards the French annexation of his hometown. He aimed to use his supporters to reclaim Nice. Cavour, fearing that Garibaldi might provoke a war with France, persuaded Garibaldi to redirect his efforts towards the Sicilian rebellions.
• The Sicilians appealed to Garibaldi for assistance, and he promised to help, provided the revolt was carried out in the name of Italy and Victor Emmanuel, and initiated by the Sicilians themselves.
• Encouraged by this assurance and incited by Mazzini, the Sicilians rose in rebellion, and Garibaldi assembled his volunteer army, famously known as the "Thousand Redshirts," to support the uprisings.

Expedition of the Thousand: Campaign Against Sicily and Naples

• The Expedition of the Thousand was a campaign led by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860 to overthrow the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples) and facilitate the union of southern Italy and Sicily with the northern regions.
• By 1860, Garibaldi had established himself as a successful military leader and was deeply committed to the cause of Italian unification. Although sympathetic to democratic ideals, he was willing to work under Victor Emmanuel II, the king of Piedmont-Sardinia, for the greater good of the nation.
• Garibaldi grew impatient with the cautious and diplomatic approach of Cavour and was eager to take action on his own to help unite Italy.
• A revolt in Sicily, beginning on April 4, 1860, prompted Garibaldi to attack the Bourbon kingdom in the south, with covert support from the United Kingdom.
• Sicilian leaders were dissatisfied with Neapolitan rule, and Britain was concerned about Neapolitan ties with Russia as part of Russia's efforts to access the Mediterranean Sea.
• British support for Garibaldi's expedition was driven by the need for better economic conditions for Sicilian sulfur, crucial for the new steamers, and the strategic importance of Sicilian ports, especially with the impending opening of the Suez Canal.
• By May 1860, Garibaldi had gathered over 1,000 volunteers for his expedition to Sicily, primarily idealistic young northerners, known as the Red Shirts.
• On May 5-6, he set sail from Genoa with his volunteers. The expedition landed at the western Sicilian port of Marsala on May 11, aided by British ships present in the harbor to deter Bourbon vessels.

Cavour's Dilemma

• Cavour sympathized with the objectives of Garibaldi's expedition but found himself in a challenging position.
• The Piedmontese government was theoretically on good terms with the government of Naples, and as the responsible minister, Cavour had the duty to prevent the port of Genoa from being used as a base for an attack against Naples.
• Encouraging an attack on a neighboring state while his government was not at war would be a grave violation of European public law and could provoke intervention from other powers.
• Therefore, Cavour's policy was to treat Garibaldi as an unauthorized and independent adventurer and to maintain a facade of strict neutrality.
• He supported Garibaldi's departure discreetly, provided secret aid when possible, and employed diplomatic skills to address the protests from other powers regarding the expedition.

Garibaldi's Challenges and Victories

• Garibaldi faced the daunting task of overcoming more than 20,000 Neapolitan troops under Bourbon King Francis II in Sicily with an untrained force armed with rusty rifles.
• He achieved a significant victory against a Neapolitan force at Calatafimi on May 15, leading many Sicilians to join him in the effort to overthrow their despised Neapolitan rulers.
• Garibaldi's success was further aided by the incompetence of the Bourbon command. He captured the capital city of Palermo and, following the Battle of Milazzo on July 20, gained control over almost the entire island of Sicily.
• Within three months, Garibaldi became the master of Sicily and proclaimed himself the dictator of the island in the name of Victor Emmanuel.
• This rapid conquest by a small group of men became a notable event in history.
• However, Garibaldi refused to immediately annex Sicily to the Kingdom of Piedmont. He had his own plans for further operations and was impatient and distrustful of Cavour's cautious diplomatic approach.
• Garibaldi aimed to advance to Naples and possibly complete Italy's unification by marching on papal Rome.
• His advance to Naples was met with enthusiasm, and King Francis II of Naples fled to Gaeta as Garibaldi approached, leading to the total collapse of Bourbon rule. Garibaldi was hailed as a hero upon entering Naples on September 7.

Cavour's Response

• Garibaldi's remarkable success posed an urgent and complex problem for Cavour.
• Emboldened by victory and encouraged by republicans, Garibaldi considered advancing to Rome.
• However, such a move would likely provoke a war with France, as Rome was protected by a French garrison.
• There was also a concern that Garibaldi, who had republican inclinations, might be influenced by extremists to steer the movement towards a republican agenda, risking a civil war and jeopardizing the national cause.
• To prevent Garibaldi's march on Rome, Cavour maneuvered politically.
• He asserted that Italy needed to be safeguarded from foreign intervention (i.e., French involvement), from the republican agenda advocated by Garibaldi, and from Garibaldi himself.
• To ensure that Piedmont retained leadership in the unification effort and to prevent a republican movement under Garibaldi's influence, Cavour ordered Piedmontese troops under Victor Emmanuel to invade the papal territories of Umbria and Marche and to meet with Garibaldi in Naples to keep him in check.
• Victor Emmanuel II invaded the Papal States, defeated them, and then moved south to join Garibaldi in Naples.
• Despite Garibaldi's distrust of Cavour, especially due to Cavour's role in the French annexation of Nice, Garibaldi accepted command under Victor Emmanuel, recognizing that completing unification was impossible under the current circumstances.
• Garibaldi agreed to hold a plebiscite in the south, which overwhelmingly favored annexation under Piedmont (on October 21).
• On October 26, Garibaldi met with Victor Emmanuel and relinquished his dictatorship over the south to the king, prioritizing loyalty to the crown over personal ambitions.
• Garibaldi declined all honors and rewards, retiring to private life for farming.
• The Expedition of the Thousand became one of the most celebrated events in the Italian Risorgimento, the process of Italian unification.
• With the exception of Rome (held by the Pope with the aid of the French army) and Venetia (under Austrian control), Italy was now nearly unified.

Victor Emmanuel Proclaimed King of Italy and Cavour's Death

• Victor Emmanuel completed the conquests initiated by Garibaldi.
• The fall of the fortress of Gaeta led to the surrender of King Francis II of Naples in 1861, bringing military operations to a close.
• On February 18, 1861, Victor Emmanuel convened the deputies of the first Italian Parliament in Turin.
• On March 17, 1861, the Parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel as King of Italy, and on March 27, 1861, Rome was declared the capital of Italy, which adopted a liberal constitution.
• However, the Italian government could not establish its seat in Rome due to the presence of a French garrison maintained by Napoleon III of France.
• Three months later, Cavour, having nearly completed his life's work, passed away.
• As he received the last rites, Cavour reportedly expressed, "Italy is made. All is safe," signifying the near completion of the unification process.

The Roman Question

• Mazzini was dissatisfied with the continuation of a monarchical government and continued to advocate for a republic.
• With the slogan "Free from the Alps to the Adriatic," the unification movement focused on Rome and Venice.
• However, there were obstacles to this goal.
• Challenging the Pope's temporal authority was met with great suspicion by Catholics worldwide.
• Additionally, French troops were stationed in Rome, complicating matters further.
• Victor Emmanuel was cautious about the international consequences of attacking the Papal States and discouraged his subjects from engaging in revolutionary activities with such intentions.
• Despite this, Garibaldi believed that the government would support him if he launched an attack on Rome.
• Frustrated with the king's inaction and feeling slighted, Garibaldi emerged from retirement to organize a new campaign. In June 1862, he set sail from Genoa, landing again in Palermo to gather volunteers for the campaign under the banner Roma o Morte ("Rome or Death").
• Contrary to supporting Garibaldi's endeavor, the Italian government opposed it.
• The regular army was dispatched to confront the volunteer factions.
• On August 28, the two forces clashed in Aspromonte.
• Garibaldi commanded his men not to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy.
• The volunteers suffered several casualties.
• Garibaldi was honorably imprisoned for a period but was eventually released.
• Meanwhile, Victor Emmanuel sought a more secure means to acquire the remaining Papal territory. He negotiated with Emperor Napoleon for the withdrawal of French troops from Rome through a treaty known as the September Convention.

The September Convention

• The September Convention was a treaty signed on September 15, 1864, between the Kingdom of Italy and the French Empire.
• According to the agreement, French Emperor Napoleon III would withdraw all French troops from Rome within two years.
• King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy guaranteed the frontiers of the Papal States, which at that time included Rome and Latium.
• The Italian government agreed to move its seat from Turin to Florence, indicating that it would not attempt to establish itself in Rome.
• The treaty faced opposition from the Pope, French Catholics, and Italian patriots.
• In 1865, the government seat was moved from Turin, the former Sardinian capital, to Florence, where the first Italian parliament convened.
• This transition caused significant unrest in Turin, forcing the king to leave the city abruptly for the new capital.
• Widespread anti-government riots erupted, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of Italian civilians.
• The last French troops departed from Rome in December 1866.
• With their withdrawal, Italy (excluding Venetia and Savoy) was liberated from foreign military presence.
• Napoleon III hoped that the Italian government and Pope Pius IX would reach a compromise allowing the government to move from Florence to Rome.
• However, Pius IX's refusal to entertain any proposals led to further actions by Italian patriots. Under Garibaldi's leadership, an invasion of Latium and Rome was organized in October 1867.
• Despite their efforts, the patriots were defeated at Mentana by 2,000 French troops sent by Napoleon III to support Pius IX's rule.

Third Independence War and Acquisition of Venetia (1866)

• The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 is referred to as the Third Independence War in Italy, following the First (1848) and Second (1859) Independence Wars.
• In 1866, escalating tensions between Austria and Prussia over the German Question erupted into open conflict, providing Italy with an opportunity to seize Venetia.
• On April 8, 1866, the Italian government, mediated by Emperor Napoleon III of France, signed a military alliance with Prussia, which supported Italy’s claim to Venetia.
• Italy declared war on Austria on June 20, 1866.
• Despite defeats at the hands of Austria at the Battle of Custozza and the naval Battle of Lissa, the decisive Prussian victory at the Battle of Sadowa forced Austria to cede Venetia to Italy under the terms of the Peace of Prague.
• Italy annexed Venetia following a plebiscite to present the acquisition as the will of the people rather than a gift from France.
• The final unification of Italy was achieved three years later with the Capture of Rome and a subsequent plebiscite.

Acquisition of Rome (1870):

• In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian War commenced.
• In early August, Napoleon III withdrew his garrison from Rome, needing troops to defend France against the Prussian advance and fearing that Italy might use the French presence in Rome as a pretext for war.
• Italy had previously allied with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War, and Italian public opinion initially favored Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War.
• The removal of the French garrison alleviated tensions between Italy and France, allowing Italy to remain neutral in the Franco-Prussian War.
• With the French garrison gone, public demonstrations in Italy called for the government to take Rome.
• However, Rome was still officially under French protection, and an attack on the city would be considered an act of war against France.
• Italy was reluctant to provoke Napoleon until the situation changed after the Battle of Sedan, where Napoleon III was defeated, and the new French government lacked the capacity or will to retaliate against Italy or protect the Pope.

Capture of Rome (20 September 1870):

• King Victor Emmanuel II sent a letter to Pope Pius IX, proposing a peaceful entry of the Italian Army into Rome under the pretext of protecting the Pope.
• The letter included ten articles prepared by Count Lanza, outlining the basis for an agreement between Italy and the Holy See, ensuring the Pope's inviolability, diplomatic immunity, and freedom to communicate with the Catholic world.
• Pope Pius IX rejected the offer, as accepting it would imply recognition of the Italian kingdom's legitimacy over his former territory.
• On September 11, 1870, the Italian Army crossed the papal frontier and advanced towards Rome. Pius IX ordered a token resistance from his troops.
• On September 20, Rome and Latium were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy following a plebiscite held on October 2, 1870.
• Pope Pius IX declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican, although he was not physically restrained.
• The Capture of Rome on September 20, 1870, marked the culmination of the Italian unification process known as the Risorgimento, signifying the defeat of the Papal States under Pope Pius IX and the unification of the Italian peninsula under King Victor Emmanuel II of the House of Savoy, with Rome as the capital.

Unification Accomplished By:

• Mazzini’s moral enthusiasm (Soul of Italian Unification)
• Garibaldi sword (Sword of Italian Unification)
• Cavour’s diplomacy (Mind of Italian Unification)
• Victor Emmanuel II’s tact and good sense

Contribution of Cavour, Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel II to Italian Unification

Cavour, Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel II played crucial roles in the unification of Italy, albeit through different means:

• Giuseppe Mazzini was the ideological leader and the heart of the unification process, founding the Young Italy movement to inspire the Italian people towards the goal of a unified republic.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi was the military leader, known for his exceptional military skills and his role in conquering southern Italy, including Sicily and Naples, which were vital to the unification.
• Camillo Cavour was the political mastermind, serving as the Prime Minister of Piedmont and using diplomatic means to strengthen Piedmont’s position and lead the unification process.
• Victor Emmanuel II provided stability and leadership as the king, making crucial decisions that supported the unification efforts.

Despite their different approaches—Mazzini focusing on ideology, Garibaldi on military action, and Cavour on political strategy—all contributed significantly to the unification of Italy. Their actions, though sometimes ambiguous, laid a strong foundation for a united Italy.

Giuseppe Mazzini (Heart and Soul of Italian Unification)

• Early Life and Revolutionary Involvement: Mazzini was born in Genoa in 1805 when it was under French rule. His early experiences sparked his interest in revolutionary movements. He became a member of the Carbonari, a secret society aimed at promoting Italian unification.
• Creation of Young Italy: After being arrested in 1831 for his revolutionary activities, Mazzini focused on creating a more effective revolutionary movement. He founded Young Italy, aiming to transform Italy into a unified, independent republic through popular uprisings.
• Struggles and Exile: Mazzini faced repeated failures in his revolutionary efforts, including uprisings in 1834 and later years. He was arrested again and forced into exile in London. Despite these setbacks, he kept the spirit of nationalism alive among Italians.
• Ideological Contribution: Mazzini inspired Italians with a strong moral vision for a unified Italy. He prepared the ground for others by spreading the ideals of nationalism and republicanism.
• Political Achievements: During his exiles, Mazzini gained British sympathy and support for Italian unification, which was crucial for international recognition of the cause.
• Later Years: After 1849, Mazzini supported Garibaldi’s attempts to conquer Rome. However, his active role in the unification process diminished as he realized his vision of a republican Italy was unlikely to materialize.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (Sword of Italian Unification)

• Early Involvement in Unification: Garibaldi became involved in the Italian Unification in 1833 by joining Young Italy, motivated by the idea of a united Italian state. After the failed revolution in Piedmont in 1834, he fled to South America.
• Military Training in America: During his time in America, Garibaldi learned guerrilla warfare, which would later prove essential in his military campaigns for Italian unification.
• Return to Italy and Defense of Rome: Upon returning to Italy, Garibaldi defended Rome against external threats, demonstrating his military leadership and commitment to the cause.
• Conquest of Southern Italy: Garibaldi led successful military campaigns in the South, notably in Sicily and Naples, significantly contributing to the unification process.
• Political and Ideological Decisions: As a military leader, Garibaldi faced political and ideological decisions. Unlike Mazzini, he was pragmatic and willing to compromise for the sake of unification.
• Handing Over Conquests: In 1861, Garibaldi handed over his conquests to Victor Emmanuel II, symbolizing the unification of Italy and prioritizing the greater good over personal ambition.
• Military Contribution: Garibaldi's primary contribution was military. He believed in using force to achieve unification and played a crucial role in the success of Garibaldi’s military campaigns.
• Support for Victor Emmanuel II: Despite being a republican, Garibaldi supported the vision of a unified Italy under a monarchy, showing his commitment to the nation above personal principles.
• Legacy: Garibaldi is remembered as a man of action, whose military exploits and dedication to Italian unity were instrumental in the country’s unification.

Camillo Cavour (Mind of Italian Unification)

• Real Creator of Italy: Cavour was the first statesman to analyze the Italian question comprehensively, understanding the complexities involved in it. He advocated not only for the expulsion of Austria but also for the abolition of several princely houses and the reduction of the Pope's temporal power.
• Adoption of New Methods: Rejecting the old methods of plots and sporadic uprisings, Cavour recognized the need for a more strategic approach. He strengthened Piedmont's position within Italy and Europe, knowing that foreign support was crucial for any significant change.
• Tact and Judgment: By participating in the Crimean War against Russia, Cavour won the sympathy of England and the active support of France. He sought to build strength for the impending war with Austria through the Pact of Plombières with France in 1859.
• Guidance of Revolutionary Movements: Cavour directed and managed the revolutionary movements in the central duchies, ensuring their annexation to Piedmont. His foresight in 1861, when he sent Piedmontese troops to moderate Garibaldi's enthusiasm, helped prevent a conflict between France and Garibaldi while allowing Piedmont to benefit from Garibaldi's conquests.
• Master Diplomat: Cavour skillfully combined various forces of the time, including Napoleon's ambitions, Mazzini's inspiration, insurrectionary movements, and Garibaldi's military efforts, into a single current aimed at unification.
• Administrator and Reformer: Cavour's success as a diplomat often overshadowed his capabilities as an administrator. He was a pioneer of free trade in Europe, and his internal reforms contributed to the unification process.
• Dealing with Regional Differences: Cavour's approach to regional and cultural differences was marked by a lack of patience for regionalism when it conflicted with his goal of unification. His moderately conservative policies on social and political matters began to alienate southern peasants and nobles, creating a regional divide that would have future repercussions.
• Political Path to Unification: Cavour's political path was distinct from those of Garibaldi and Mazzini. Initially a Piedmontese expansionist, he shifted focus to unification as he recognized the importance of nationalistic movements.
• Relationship with Mazzini: Cavour and Mazzini had conflicting views; Cavour disliked Mazzini's nationalist ideas. Unlike Garibaldi and Mazzini, Cavour did not engage in revolutionary movements or sympathize with them.
• Opportunism: Cavour displayed opportunism by adjusting his stance from Piedmontese expansionism to prioritizing unification, recognizing the potential threats posed by nationalistic movements.
• Comparison with Garibaldi: Cavour and Garibaldi were opposites in their approaches. Cavour was cautious and calculated, while Garibaldi was more extreme and impulsive. Cavour’s representation of a monarchy and his realistic politics allowed him to navigate the political landscape effectively, while Garibaldi relied on grassroots support and idealism.

Victor Emmanuel II

• Victor Emmanuel II played a pivotal role in the unification of Italy through his military organization, straightforwardness, and support for his ministers.
• His decisions during critical moments were instrumental in guiding the long and complex process of Italian unification.
• While the contributions of Garibaldi, Mazzini, and Cavour were not equal, each played a significant role in laying the foundation for a united Italy.
• Mazzini was crucial for spreading nationalism, Garibaldi for military victories, and Cavour for meticulous planning.
• Despite their different emphases—Mazzini on ideology, Garibaldi on military action, and Cavour on political strategy—all contributed to the unification effort.
• Their actions, though sometimes ambiguous, were essential in achieving a united Italy.