Untouchability-forms and perspectives | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• Historical Origin: Untouchability in India has a long history, and its exact origins and practices are not always clear. It was based on the religious concept of pollution, where certain castes were considered impure and contact with them required purification rituals for higher-caste Hindus.
• Legal Measures: Despite constitutional provisions and the Untouchability (Offences) Act of 1955, untouchability practices have not been completely eradicated, mainly due to deeply ingrained beliefs about purity and pollution in Indian society.
• Stigma and Discrimination: The Dalit community continues to face social stigma and discrimination in various aspects of life. They are denied access to temples, shunned by higher castes, and live with a permanent label of impurity.
• Efforts for Change: Some Dalit groups have realized that their problems can only be addressed through effective political action. Government policies, such as reservations in education and employment, have provided opportunities for economic and political mobility among Dalits.
• Social Transformation: Sociologists have studied the social transformation of Dalits, including their efforts in education, acceptance of innovations, political awareness, integration with larger society, aspirations, and leadership.
• Economic Mobility: Many Dalits have moved away from traditional polluting occupations, which has helped improve their social status and economic mobility. Some have become property owners and benefited from government economic initiatives.
• Complex Social Dynamics: While there has been progress, social divisions and stereotypes still persist, particularly in matters like marriage and competition for opportunities created by protective discrimination policies.
• Migration and Urbanization: Mobility has been facilitated by migration from rural to urban areas, education, and entry into public services and politics. This has reduced the structural distance between Dalits and others.
• Rural Marginality: In rural areas, most Dalits do not own land, and their income often depends on working as laborers on others' land. Their employment is influenced by factors like agricultural production, wages, and demand for labor during harvest seasons.

Perspectives

• Gandhian Perspective: Mahatma Gandhi's perspective on untouchability is reformist. He believed in the equality of all humans in the eyes of God and saw untouchability as a crime against humanity. Gandhi advocated for reforms such as allowing untouchables into Hindu temples, promoting inter-dining, and encouraging higher castes to experience the occupations of lower castes to foster integration and humanistic values in Hinduism.
• Harold Gould's Perspective: Harold Gould contradicted Gandhi's view by arguing that the socio-religious movements of untouchables were not seeking equality as a concession but as a right earned through protest. He believed that untouchables could adopt Brahmanic and Sanskritic values and, therefore, should not be seen as seeking grace or concessions.
• Dialectical Approach: This perspective suggests that socially and economically empowered groups do not face social and cultural discrimination. It posits that untouchables, who were originally the inhabitants of India, became marginalized due to territorial and political aggression, leading to land loss and poverty. Poverty is seen as the primary cause of untouchability.
• David Hardiman's View: David Hardiman draws parallels between the Dalit movement in India and the mobilization of marginalized groups in Europe, emphasizing economic exploitation as a common driving force.
• Ambedkar's Perspective: B.R. Ambedkar's view on untouchability is nuanced. He distinguished untouchability from the broader caste system and saw it as reinforced by Brahmanism. Ambedkar believed that untouchables had to fight their own battle and that others should support them rather than prescribe solutions. He criticized colonial administration and the record of Islam and Christianity regarding untouchability.
• Common Disadvantages: Ambedkar highlighted the common disadvantages faced by untouchables, including living in ghettos, universal disdain, and exclusion from society. He urged untouchables not to fall into the trap of Gandhism, which he viewed as a pretense.
• Origin of Untouchability: Ambedkar did not delve deeply into the historical origins of untouchability. He proposed imaginative theories, such as untouchables being condemned due to their refusal to give up Buddhism and beef-eating. However, he did not emphasize these theories consistently.
• Constitutional Safeguards: Ambedkar believed that untouchables were a separate element in India and advocated for constitutional safeguards to protect their rights and interests.

Untouchability as practiced

The passage highlights the persistent issue of untouchability and discrimination faced by Dalits in India, despite legal efforts and constitutional provisions to eradicate this practice. Here are some key points from the passage:

• Continuing Discrimination: Despite the outlawing of untouchability in the Indian Constitution in 1950, millions of Dalits still experience discrimination and humiliation based on their birth. Dalits constitute a significant portion of India's population, yet they continue to face social and economic inequalities.
• Denial of Rights: Dalits are often denied their basic rights, including the right to education and land ownership. They are relegated to performing menial and physically demanding jobs for their livelihood, with limited opportunities for economic advancement.
• Segregation: Dalits frequently face segregation in various aspects of life, such as restricted access to public roads, water tanks, temples, and cremation grounds. This segregation is particularly prominent in rural areas.
• Manual Scavenging: Although many state governments claim to have abolished manual scavenging (the practice of cleaning human waste manually), reports indicate that it still exists in various parts of the country, highlighting the gap between laws and their implementation.
• Transport-related Discrimination: Discrimination is also prevalent in the transport sector, where there are unwritten rules that prioritize caste Hindus over Dalits when boarding buses. Transport employees may engage in confrontations with Dalit passengers without provocation.
• Discrimination in Education: Dalit students often face discrimination from teachers and fellow students belonging to upper-caste Hindu social groups. This discrimination can manifest in various forms, including the denial of access to common facilities like drinking water, as well as systematic refusals of admission to Dalit students in certain schools.

The passage underscores that despite legal frameworks and modernization, the practice of untouchability and discrimination against Dalits remains deeply entrenched in various aspects of Indian society. It highlights the ongoing challenges in achieving true social equality and justice for marginalized communities.

Emergence of Dalit Consciousness

This passage provides an overview of the Dalit community in India, their historical struggle for rights and recognition, and their demographic presence in various states.
Here are some key points:

• Origin of the Term "Dalit": The term "Dalit" originated from the outcaste group of untouchables and was popularized by Mahatma Jyotiba Phule. It is used to refer to those who have historically suffered discrimination and social exclusion in India.
• Historical Movements: During the British colonial period, several movements and leaders, including Mahatma Jyotiba Phule and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, advocated for the rights and upliftment of Dalits. These movements played a significant role in raising awareness about the Dalit cause.
• Dalit Panther Movement: The term "Dalit" gained prominence in 1975 when a movement called the "Dalit Panther" was launched by figures like Namdeo Dhasal and Raja Dhale. This movement drew inspiration from the Black Panther movement in the United States and aimed to address the issues faced by Dalits in India.
• Dalit Demography: According to the 2011 census, Dalits constitute approximately 17.1% of India's population. However, their percentage varies across states, with higher concentrations in states like Punjab (28%), Bengal (24%), and Uttar Pradesh (19%). Uttar Pradesh has the highest absolute number of Dalits, with over 40 million individuals belonging to this community.
• Identity and Assertion: The significance of Dalit identity and assertion has grown over the years. It is not merely their numerical strength but their identity and assertiveness that have made them an important force in Indian society.
• Post-Independence Period: After India gained independence, legal measures were put in place to combat discrimination and provide equal opportunities to lower castes, including Dalits. Reservation of electoral candidates for parliamentary and assembly seats helped create awareness among Dalits about their rights and representation in the political process.
• Access to Power: The legal and democratic rights, coupled with numerical strength, have empowered Dalit groups to participate actively in politics and assert their rights. Access to political power has reinforced egalitarian and competitive ideologies among Dalits.

Overall, this passage highlights the evolution of the Dalit identity, their struggles for rights, and their growing political and social influence in India.

Future prospect

The question of whether Dalits will ever be fully integrated into the mainstream of Indian society is a complex and evolving one.
Several factors need to be considered:

• Education and Skills: Education and skills are key factors in empowering Dalits and helping them compete effectively in modern society. Access to quality education and vocational training can significantly enhance their socio-economic status.
• Legislation: While legislation alone may not completely eliminate discrimination and inequalities, it plays a crucial role in providing legal protections and ensuring equal rights for Dalits. Anti-discrimination laws and affirmative action policies have been implemented to address historical injustices.
• Attitudinal Change: Changing the attitudes of caste Hindus towards Dalits is equally important. This involves challenging deeply ingrained prejudices and stereotypes. Efforts to promote social harmony, inter-caste marriages, and awareness campaigns can contribute to attitudinal change.
• Government Initiatives: The government's efforts to ameliorate the condition of Dalits through various welfare programs and reservations in education and employment are essential. These initiatives aim to uplift marginalized communities.
• Dalit Consciousness: Dalits themselves are becoming increasingly conscious of their rights and are asserting their demands for equality and social justice. This consciousness has led to political mobilization and participation.
• Political Influence: Dalits, due to their significant numbers, have the potential to exert political influence. While they may not always form a separate political party, they can support national political parties and negotiate for policies that benefit their community.
• Challenges of Unity: One challenge is the lack of unity within the Dalit community. The educated elite may have different priorities and strategies than the masses. Building a common front and adopting a radical posture can be challenging due to diverse interests and perspectives.
• Social and Economic Disparities: Overcoming entrenched social and economic disparities is a long-term process. It requires sustained efforts from multiple stakeholders, including the government, civil society, and the broader Indian society.

In conclusion, the integration of Dalits into the mainstream of Indian society is a multifaceted and ongoing process. It requires a combination of education, legal protections, attitudinal change, and political empowerment. While there has been progress, significant challenges remain, and the path to full integration may be gradual and complex.

The Present Discourse

The issue of exclusion faced by Dalits and other marginalized groups in India is a significant social problem that continues to persist. Exclusion can take various forms, both overt and covert, and it often reflects deeply ingrained prejudices and biases within society. Here are some key points related to exclusion:

• Deliberate Intention vs. Indirect Design: Exclusion of Dalits and other marginalized groups can result from deliberate discriminatory actions or indirect systemic designs that perpetuate inequality. Discrimination can be both structural and individual, and it may manifest in various aspects of life, such as access to public facilities, social events, education, and employment.
• Fear and Reprisals: As noted, marginalized groups often face exclusion due to fear of negative reactions or reprisals. This fear can be a powerful force that compels individuals or communities to self-exclude from certain spaces or opportunities to avoid potential harm or discrimination.
• Voluntary Exclusion vs. Forced Exclusion: The term "voluntary exclusion" can be misleading, as it often implies a choice. In reality, many marginalized individuals or groups may "choose" to exclude themselves from certain situations or spaces because they see no viable alternative or because they fear discrimination or violence if they attempt to participate.
• Intersectionality: Exclusion often intersects with multiple dimensions of identity, including caste, gender, religion, and ethnicity. For example, Dalit women may face multiple layers of discrimination due to their intersecting identities, making their experiences of exclusion even more complex.
• Legal Protections: India has enacted laws and policies to address discrimination and exclusion based on caste, including reservations in education and employment. However, the effective implementation of these measures remains a challenge.
• Social Awareness and Advocacy: Civil society organizations, activists, and Dalit leaders have played a crucial role in raising awareness about exclusion and advocating for the rights and dignity of marginalized communities. They work to challenge discriminatory practices and promote social inclusion.
• Long-Term Change: Achieving true social inclusion and reducing exclusion requires long-term efforts to change societal attitudes and dismantle deeply entrenched prejudices. Education, awareness campaigns, and inter-caste dialogues can contribute to this process.

In summary, exclusion faced by Dalits and other marginalized groups in India is a complex issue deeply rooted in historical and societal factors. It often arises from a combination of deliberate discrimination, systemic biases, fear of reprisals, and deeply ingrained prejudices. Addressing this issue requires concerted efforts from all sectors of society, including the government, civil society, and individuals, to create a more inclusive and equitable society.

Special Note

State and non state initiatives addressing caste and tribe discrimination
The initiatives taken by both the Indian state and non-state actors to address caste and tribe discrimination have played a significant role in addressing historical injustices and promoting social equity.
Here are some key points regarding these initiatives:

• Historical Context: The British Indian Government recognized the need for special treatment of Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes due to the widespread discrimination they faced. The identification of these groups and the formulation of policies to address their concerns date back to the 1935 schedules.
• Reservations: One of the most important state initiatives to compensate for past and present caste discrimination is the reservation policy. Reservations involve setting aside a certain percentage of seats in legislatures, government jobs, and educational institutions for members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This policy has been extended to Other Backward Classes (OBCs) as well. The proportion of reserved seats is determined based on the population share of SCs and STs.
• Legal Framework: Several laws have been enacted to end, prohibit, and punish caste discrimination and untouchability. The Indian Constitution abolished untouchability and introduced reservation provisions. The Prevention of Atrocities Act in 1989 further strengthened legal provisions against violence or humiliation directed at Dalits and Adivasis.
• State Action: The government has also implemented various developmental programs targeting SCs, STs, and OBCs. These programs aim to uplift these communities in various socio-economic aspects, including education, healthcare, and employment opportunities.
• Non-State Initiatives: Dalits and Adivasis have actively participated in political, agitational, and cultural movements to assert their rights and dignity. Leaders like Jyotiba Phule, Periyar, and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar led pre-Independence movements for social justice. Contemporary political organizations like the Bahujan Samaj Party and Dalit Sangharsh Samiti continue to advocate for the rights of marginalized communities.
• Literary Contributions: Dalits have made significant contributions to literature in various Indian languages, including Marathi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, and Hindi. Through literature, they have expressed their experiences, struggles, and aspirations, contributing to a broader understanding of caste-based discrimination.
• Challenges Remain: While these initiatives have made substantial progress in addressing caste discrimination, challenges remain. Achieving social change requires more than just legislative measures. Attitudes, prejudices, and deeply ingrained biases within society also need to change for true equality to be realized.

In summary, both state and non-state initiatives have played a crucial role in addressing caste and tribe discrimination in India. The reservation policy, legal framework, and various developmental programs have aimed to uplift marginalized communities. However, the persistence of discrimination underscores the need for continued efforts to bring about social change and ensure justice and dignity for all.