Vedic Period: Political, Social and Economical life | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Political Life in Early Vedic Age (1500-1000 B.C.)

Administrative Divisions

• The primary political unit was the kula, or family.
• Several families would unite based on kinship to form a village, known as grama.
• The leader of a grama was called the gramani.
• A group of villages formed a larger unit called visu or district, headed by a vishayapati.
• The highest political unit was the jana or tribe, with various tribal kingdoms like the Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus, and Purus during the Rig Vedic period.
• The head of the kingdom was known as rajan or king.

Form of Government

• The political system was tribal, with a strong military presence.
• There was no civil system or territorial administration, as the people were in a constant state of expansion, migrating from one area to another.
• The administrative structure was centered around the tribal chief, called the Rajan.

The King/Rajan/Chief

• The king held a prominent position within the tribe, often appointed by a priest during the Abhishka Ceremony.
• While the position of king appeared to be hereditary, the rajan had to consider the tribal organization and did not wield absolute power.
• There were indications of the king being elected by a tribal assembly known as the samiti.
• The king was responsible for protecting the tribe, its cattle, leading in battles, and performing rituals for the tribe.
• He was expected to embody the qualities of Indra in bravery,Mitra in kindness, and Varuna in virtue.
• Maintaining law and order was a primary duty, often supported by Purohitas.

Officials

• The king was aided by various officials, including the Purohita(priest),senani(general),gramani(village headman), and spies.
• The Purohita was a crucial state officer, with priests like Vasishtha and Vishvamitra playing significant roles during the Rig Vedic period.
• The priests motivated the chief for action and celebrated achievements in exchange for rewards like cows and women slaves.

The Senani

• The Senani, or commander of the army, was another vital official.
• The army comprised Patti(infantry) and Rathins(chariots).
• The sena or army was not a permanent force but consisted of able-bodied tribesmen mobilized for war.
• Takshan, the carpenter, and rathakara, the chariot maker, were responsible for chariot production.
• Soldiers used weapons such as bows, arrows, swords, axes, and spears.
• There was no official tax collector; instead, people voluntarily offered bali, a contribution made on special occasions.
• The Rig Veda does not mention any official responsible for administering justice.
• Despite this, the society had issues like theft and burglary, particularly the theft of cows.
• Spies were employed to monitor and report such antisocial activities.
• The officer overseeing large pasture grounds was called Vrajapati, leading family heads or fighting hordes into battle.

Popular Assemblies

• The Rajan was supported by tribal assemblies like sabha,samiti,vidatha,gana, and parishad.
• The sabha was likely a council of elders, while the samiti was a general assembly of the entire population.
• These assemblies discussed various aspects of life, including wars, distribution of war spoils, judicial matters, and religious activities.
• They served to limit the powers of the chiefs.
• Interestingly, women were also permitted to participate in the discussions of the sabha and samiti.

Changes in the Later Vedic Age

During the Later Vedic period, significant transformations occurred in society, marked by a shift from a pastoral lifestyle to a sedentary agrarian society. Agriculture became a central activity, reflecting the growing importance of settled farming.

Transition to Agrarian Society

• The Later Vedic period witnessed a shift from a pastoral society to a sedentary agrarian society, with agriculture becoming a vital activity. This transition marked a significant change in the lifestyle and economic practices of the people.

Social Differentiation and the Varna System

• A profound change during this period was the emergence of social differentiation in the form of the varna system.
• Society became divided into four varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas (or Rajanyas), Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• The origin of these varnas is described in a hymn that depicts Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras as different parts of the body of the universal creator, Prajapati.
• The hymn illustrates that Brahmanas were derived from the mouth, Kshatriyas from the arms, Vaishyas from the thighs, and Shudras from the feet, symbolizing their roles in society.

Role of the Brahmanas

• During this period, the growing number of sacrifices and rituals enhanced the power of the Brahmanas, who conducted various rituals, including those related to agricultural operations.
• The Brahmanas played a crucial role in society by overseeing these rituals, which made them increasingly important.

Role of the Kshatriyas

• The Kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers and played a vital role in governance and protection.
• Along with the Brahmanas, they controlled various aspects of life, including administration and defense.

Role of the Vaishyas

• The Vaishyas, the most numerous varna, were engaged in agriculture, trade, and artisanal activities.
• They played a crucial role in the economy and were responsible for producing and distributing goods.
• The Brahmanas and Kshatriyas depended on the tributes (gifts and taxes) paid to them by the Vaishyas for their sustenance.

Role of the Shudras

• The Shudras were at the bottom of the social hierarchy and were ordained to serve the three upper varnas.
• They were not entitled to the ritual of upanayana samskara, which was necessary for education, and thus were excluded from certain social privileges.
• The other three varnas were known as dvijas because they were entitled to this ceremony.

Concept of Varna

• The system of varna was characterized by status by birth, a hierarchical ordering of the varnas (with Brahmanas at the top and Shudras at the base), and rules of endogamy and ritual purity.

Varnadharma System

• The Varnadharma system aimed to establish a social law for the systematic functioning of society.
• However, during the Later Vedic period, this system was not fully developed.
• Social groups were primarily divided based on occupation, and society remained flexible, allowing individuals to change occupations without being bound by birth.

Jati System

• The concept of Jati emerged in later Vedic texts, referring to extended families and emphasizing kinship ties.
• While Varna determined ritual status, Jati decided actual status.
• Over time, Jati became a more precise measure of socio-economic status and was associated with endogamous kinship groups and specialized occupations.

Interactions with Non-Vedic Tribes

• During the Later Vedic period, the Vedic people encountered various non-Vedic tribes, leading to significant interactions that contributed to the formation of a composite society.The Atharvaveda reflects these interactions by depicting a range of non-Vedic religious practices that were sanctioned by priests.Despite these interactions, tribal endogamy was emphasized to maintain the purity of tribes, while the growing influence of Kshatriyas and Brahmanas necessitated the preservation of their superior status.

Habitations

• People continued to live in wooden or thatched houses, with walls plastered with clay.
• Better houses included a store-room, a ladies' room, a general living room for men, and a hall for fire worship.

Family Structure and Role of Grihapati

• The family remained the basic unit of Vedic society, but its composition changed during the Later Vedic period.
• The patriarchal family was well-established, and the grihapati(head of the household) gained special status.
• The increasing power of fathers was evident, as they could even disinherit their sons.
• With the rise of the household economy, the position of the householder became economically significant.
• Rights over land were based on usage, and communal ownership of land prevailed.
• Grihapatis were wealthy and gained their wealth through their own efforts, not through gifts.
• They performed yajnas (sacrifices) to gain merit, channeling part of their wealth to the Brahmanas.
• Communal hearths discovered at sites like Atranjikhera and Ahichchhtra were meant for communal feeding or cooking for large families.

Princely Families and Primogeniture

• In princely families, the right of primogeniture(inheritance by the firstborn) was becoming stronger.
• Worship of male ancestors became common.
• Despite some instances of women philosophers and a few queens participating in coronation rituals, women were generally considered subordinate to men and excluded from major family decision-making.

Gotra and Marriage Practices

• The institution of gotra(clan) developed during this period, where people with the same gotra descended from a common ancestor.
• Gotra exogamy (marriage outside the gotra) became practiced, prohibiting marriage between members of the same gotra.
• While monogamous marriages were preferred, polygamy was also common.

Decline in the Status of Women

• The status of women declined during the Later Vedic period, with some restrictions being imposed.
• In one text, women were considered a vice along with dice and wine.
• In another text, daughters were viewed as a source of sorrow.
• Women were expected to live with their husbands after marriage, and their participation in public meetings (Samiti) was restricted.
• Women lost the right to inherit property, becoming dependents of their fathers, husbands, or sons.

Varnashrama Dharma

• The institution of ashrama(stages of life) began to take shape, prescribing four stages of life: Brahmachari (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (hermit), and Sanyasi (ascetic).
• Initially, only three ashramas were mentioned in Later Vedic texts: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, and Vanaprastha.
• Over time, Sanyasa, the fourth stage, was added, although it was not known until the Upanishads were written.
• Together with varna, this concept became known as varna-ashrama dharma.

Changes in Deities and Material Life

• Changes in material life led to a shift in attitude towards gods and goddesses.
• Continuous interactions with local non-Aryan populations also contributed to these changes, making deities like Vishnu and Rudra more prominent, as they were initially smaller deities in the Rigveda.

Food Habits

• Food and drink remained largely the same as in early Vedic times, with rice, porridge made from grains, barley, milk, curds, ghee, sesame, and meat being common.
• Meat was generally consumed on festive occasions, and the drinking of sura (an alcoholic beverage) was condemned as it led to immoral behavior.

Dressing Sense

• Dressing typically consisted of three garments: an undergarment (nivi), a garment proper (vasas), and an over-garment (adhi-vasas).
• Both men and women wore a turban as part of their attire.

Medical Knowledge and Practices

• Knowledge of medicine was rudimentary, with the use of medicinal herbs combined with magical spells indicating a primitive system of curing diseases.
• The use of sandbands to stop bleeding is noteworthy.
• The Samkhayana Brahmana noted that sickness was particularly prevalent during seasonal changes, highlighting the influence of nature on human health.

Economic Life in the Vedic Age

Early Vedic Age (1500 – 1000 B.C.)

Economic Activities

• In the early Vedic period, the Aryans were primarily pastoralists, with cattle rearing as their main occupation. They raised various animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, and horses, for milk, meat, and hides.
• A pastoral society relies more on animal wealth than agricultural produce. Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people in areas where large-scale agriculture is not feasible due to environmental and cultural constraints.
• Literary evidence from the Rigveda indicates the importance of cattle. Many words are derived from go, meaning cow. A wealthy person was known as gomat, and the daughter as duhitri, meaning one who milks the cow.
• Terms for conflicts and battles, such as gavishti and gaveshana, often referred to the search for or battles over cows.
• The chief, or raja, was called gopati, meaning protector of cows. Social and religious life, as well as important aspects of Rigvedic life, revolved around cow rearing.

Literary and Archaeological Evidence

• Literary references to pasture lands, cow pens, dairy products, and domesticated animals are common in Rigvedic hymns and prayers.
• Cows were seen as providers of everything, and prayers were offered for an increase in their numbers.
• Conflicts over cattle are suggested by references to the Panis, who hid their wealth, primarily cows, in mountains and forests, and the invocation of the god Indra to retrieve these cattle.

Agriculture

• While the early Vedic people had knowledge of agriculture, evidence for its prominence compared to pastoral activities is limited. References to agriculture appear to be later insertions.
• Some references in the Rigveda indicate familiarity with agricultural practices such as sowing, harvesting, and threshing. The ploughshare is mentioned, possibly made of wood, and yava or barley is the only grain explicitly mentioned.
• The ploughed land was known as Urvara or Kshetra. The lack of iron technology and reliance on copper tools limited agricultural efficiency.
• Stone tools, including axes, were used, and shifting agriculture was practiced. The Rigveda mentions tools like hoes, sickles, and axes, likely for slashing or shifting cultivation.
• The region's low rainfall and the changing courses of rivers like the Sutlej, Indus, Ghaggar, and Ravi made permanent agriculture challenging.
• The evidence of pastoralism and shifting cultivation suggests a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle, with people moving with their herds to find grazing areas.
• Literary and archaeological sources indicate that the population was not fully sedentary, and kinship units, such as gotra, reflect a mobile character.
• Gift exchange and redistribution were significant economic practices, with tributes paid to victorious chiefs in tribal conflicts. Redistribution also occurred during sacrifices and rituals.
• There was no concept of private property based on land ownership. Gifts to priests typically consisted of cows and women slaves, not land.

Other Occupations

• Evidence of trade and commerce in early Vedic society is scarce. The Rigveda mentions artisans such as carpenters, chariot makers, weavers, leather workers, and potters, indicating the practice of various crafts.
• The term ayas, referring to copper or bronze, suggests knowledge of metalworking. The Vedic people were more familiar with land routes, as samudra in the Rigveda mainly denotes a collection of water.
• People lived in wooden and bamboo houses with thatched roofs and clay floors. The Rigveda refers to pura, likely fortified places serving as refuges during invasions, although the exact identification of these sites is still under research.
• The absence of the term nagara(city) in the Rigveda indicates that people did not live in cities. The gramani was the village chief, responsible for both civil and military affairs.
• The Rigvedic phase coincides with a pre-iron phase of the Painted Gray Ware (PGW) culture.

Later Vedic Age

• During the later Vedic phase, agriculture became the primary occupation of the Vedic people. The expansion of agriculture was facilitated by the availability of fertile alluvial lands, particularly in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the middle Ganga valley.
• Later Vedic texts describe ploughing with yokes of six, eight, twelve, and even twenty-four oxen, although this may be an exaggeration. Ploughing was typically done with wooden ploughshares, suitable for the light soil of the upper-Gangetic plains.
• Agriculture was considered primitive, but widespread. The furrow(sita) was known, and various rituals were introduced to initiate agricultural processes, as detailed in the Satapatha Brahmana.
• Agricultural operations included ploughing, sowing, reaping, and threshing. The use of manure for increasing production was well understood. A variety of grains were grown, including barley, rice, wheat, beans, sesame, and lentils. There were typically two harvests each year.
• Manual labor in agriculture was not beneath even kings and princes. Figures like Janaka, king of Videha, and Balarama, brother of Krishna, are associated with ploughing.
• However, in later times, ploughing became prohibited for members of the upper varnas. The domestication of the buffalo for agricultural purposes was significant, especially for ploughing swampy land.
• The god Indra acquired the title “Lord of the Plough” during this period, reflecting the growing importance of agriculture.
• Materials such as cooked rice began to be offered in rituals, indicating the significance of agricultural produce. The twelve sacrifices prescribed in the Atharvaveda for acquiring material benefits included offerings of cows, calves, oxen, gold, cooked rice, thatched houses, and well-cultivated fields to the Brahmanas.
• The offerings reflect the increasing importance of sedentary settlements and agriculture. Agricultural activities were not labor-intensive, and sites with rice remains from excavations suggest that wet rice cultivation, which is labor-intensive, was not yet practiced.
• The number and variety of plant foods increased, with rice becoming a chief crop and staple diet. Excavated sites such as PGW and Banas culture yield charred grains of rice.
• The Vedic people became acquainted with rice in the Doab, and texts mention various types of rice

Religious Life in Early Vedic Age (1500 - 1000 B.C.)

Introduction

• Religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda.
• They venerated natural forces (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire, etc.) beyond their control.
• The Rigvedic gods were personifications of these natural forces.

Patriarchal Society:

• Gods in the Rigveda reflect the tribal and patriarchal society.
• Male gods like Indra, Agni, Varuna, and Yama are prominent, while goddesses like Ushas and Sarasvati hold secondary positions.

Major Gods and Their Functions

• Indra: The god of strength, war, thunder, and rain. He was invoked for victories in battles and for rain. About 250 hymns in the Rigveda are dedicated to him.
• Agni: The god of fire, considered a mediator between gods and humans. He was associated with domestic life and purity. About 200 hymns are dedicated to Agni.
• Varuna: The god of water and the upholder of rita (cosmic order).
• Yama: The god of death.
• Maruts: Storm gods who assisted Indra in battle.
• Soma: Associated with plants and herbs, particularly the intoxicating juice used in sacrifices.
• Pushan: The god of roads, herdsmen, and cattle.
• Aditi and Ushas: Minor goddesses associated with dawn.

Characteristics of Vedic Religion

• The Vedic religion was sacrificial in nature, with sacrifices (yajnas) performed to invoke gods for various boons like victory in battles, acquisition of cattle, and sons.
• Hymns and prayers were recited during these sacrifices, usually performed by priests.
• The growing importance of sacrifices led to the increasing significance of priests.
• Prayers were offered collectively or individually, emphasizing direct communication with gods.
• Religion was not based on magical formulas but on direct appeals to gods through sacrifices and hymns.
• Gods were invoked for material gains like children, cattle, food, wealth, and health.
• Animal sacrifice was common in pastoral society, while older animals were killed to lessen economic burdens.
• The Vedic religion reflected a patriarchal pastoral society and was materialistic in perspective.

Later Vedic Changes

• With the growth of agriculture, changes in material life and interactions with local non-Aryan populations influenced religious practices.
• Two different religious traditions emerged: Vedic (documented in the Sama and Yajurveda Samhitas and Brahmanas) and non-Vedic or folk tradition (documented in the Atharvaveda).
• The frequency and scale of yajnas increased, often involving the sacrifice of numerous animals.
• Public sacrifices like Rajasuya, Vajapeya, and Asvamedha involved community participation and reinforced the authority of chiefs.
• Private sacrifices were performed by individuals in their households, reflecting the settled lifestyle of the Vedic people.
• The importance of brahmanas grew, and yajnas became a source of wealth for them through gifts and fees.
• Rituals in sacrifices began to include elements of fertility cults, and some objects were worshipped as symbols of divinity, indicating the emergence of idolatry.
• Indra and Agni lost prominence, while deities like Prajapati, Vishnu, and Rudra gained importance.
• Pushan became the god of the Sudras, and the contents of the Atharvaveda reflected folk traditions, focusing on magic and individualistic concerns.
• Opposition to complex yajnas and priestly domination led to the formulation of philosophical doctrines in the Upanishads, emphasizing karma, rebirth, and moksha.
• The Upanishads marked a shift from materialistic religion to philosophy, emphasizing the changelessness of the soul and the need for stability and integration during the rise of janapadas and mahajanapadas.
• During the entire Vedic phase, temples and idol worship were not practiced, which developed later.

Various Approaches to Understanding the Vedic Religion

Naturalistic Polytheism in the Rig Veda

• The Rig Veda showcases a form of naturalistic polytheism, where multiple gods embody different natural phenomena.
• For instance, deities like Agni (Fire), Surya (the Sun), and Ushas (Dawn) are directly linked to natural elements.
• The gods are depicted as anthropomorphic, possessing human-like physical traits such as heads, faces, mouths, hair, hands, feet, clothes, and weapons, although the level of detail varies.

Henotheism or Kathenotheism

• The Rig Veda does not adhere to a strict hierarchy of gods or a fixed pantheon. Instead, the prominence of deities can vary.
• When a particular god is invoked in a hymn, that deity is regarded as the supreme god for that context.
• Max Muller termed this concept as Henotheism or Kathenotheism, where each deity is honored as supreme in turn.
• Kathenotheism involves the worship of one god at a time, while henotheism acknowledges multiple gods without rejecting their existence.

Monism and Monotheism

• The Vedas and the Upanishads advocate monotheism and monism, suggesting that while there are many gods, they represent different aspects of the same ultimate Reality.
• Monism focuses on Brahman as the ultimate Reality, whereas monotheism emphasizes the personal form of Brahman.
• In various Vedic passages, ultimate Reality is depicted both as immanent and transcendent.
• The Taittiriya Upanishad describes Brahman as the source of all beings, their sustenance, and the ultimate destination after death.
• Brahman is depicted as the eternal and imperishable reality within the universe.
• Some interpretations suggest that the Vedas contain elements of monism along with aspects of pantheism.

Vedic Religion as a Sacrificial Cult

• The Purusha-Sukta describes the creation of the world as a result of a primordial sacrifice. The hymn to the god Vishwakarman envisions the creator god as the first sacrificer and the sacrificial offering.
• The Brahmana texts indicate that sacrifices had become longer, more elaborate, and expensive over time.
• Sacrifice is portrayed as a fundamental act that created the world, and its correct performance was deemed essential for regulating life and the world.
• The god Prajapati, closely associated with sacrifice, is one of the most important deities in the Brahmanas.
• Complex sacrificial rituals like Vajapeya, Ashwamegha, and Rajasuya were linked to kingship, while Agnihotra was a simpler domestic sacrifice.

Agnosticism and Atheism

• The Rigveda questions the belief in gods, including the greatness of certain deities like Indra. For example, a Rig Vedic hymn inquires, “Whoever has seen Indra. If he has not been seen, why should one believe in his existence?”
• Another hymn in the Rig Veda Samhita poses questions about the primeval being’s birth and the nature of substance and soul.
• The views in the Swasanvad Upanishad, as summarized in the Samkhya Sutra, reject concepts like incarnation, god, heaven, and hell. It argues that traditional religious texts are the products of arrogant individuals, with nature as the creator and time as the destroyer, disregarding virtue or vice in determining human happiness or suffering.

Sacrifice as a Ritual and Social Exchange in Vedic India

In Vedic India, sacrifice was both a ritual and a form of social exchange. Deities were worshipped through prayer and sacrificial rituals known as yajnas. These sacrifices marked a transition from the ordinary, everyday activities to the sacred realm. The gods were depicted as powerful and mostly benevolent beings who could be compelled to intervene in the human world through the performance of sacrifices.

The objectives of these sacrifices included requests for wealth, livestock, good crops, success in conflicts, good health, sons, and long life for the yajmanas(the individuals performing the sacrifice). It was believed that these rituals contributed to the well-being of the clan and the social order.

Examining Sacrifice as a Ritual in Vedic India

• Sacrifices were conducted either in the home of the yajmana or on a specially prepared plot of land nearby. The rituals primarily involved offerings of milk, ghee (clarified butter), and grain poured into the fire, accompanied by the recitation of specific sacrificial formulas. Some yajnas included the sacrifice of animals.
• The gods were thought to partake of the offerings as they were consumed by the fire, while a portion of the offerings was consumed by the officiating priests.
• Some sacrifices were simple, domestic affairs performed by householders, while others required the involvement of ritual specialists. The Rig Veda mentions seven types of sacrificial priests, each with specific tasks.
• The agnihotra was a basic domestic sacrifice to be performed daily by the head of a dvi household, both morning and evening. It involved pouring oblations of milk into the fire dedicated to the god Agni.
• Periodic sacrifices were also held during the new moon and full moon, as well as at the beginning of the three seasons. The ritual drink Soma, mentioned in the Rig Veda, was used during these sacrificial rituals.

In later Vedic times, sacrifices became longer, more elaborate, and expensive. The act of sacrifice was viewed as a creator of the world, and its current performance was seen as essential for regulating life and the cosmos.

Complex sacrificial rituals were associated with kingship:

• The Vajapeya sacrifice was linked to the attainment of power and prosperity, incorporating various fertility rites.
• The Ashvamedha was associated with claims to political supremacy and included horse sacrifice and fertility rites.
• The Rajasuya was the royal consecration ceremony.

These rituals included agrarian fertility rites, a ritual cattle raid, and a game of dice, with the king emerging victorious. Symbolically, the Rajasuya presented the king as central to the cyclical processes of the universe's regeneration.

Sacrifice as a Form of Social Exchange in Vedic India

• The priests received dakshina(fees) in exchange for their important roles in the rituals. As sacrifices became longer and more complex, the role of the priest and the dakshina given to them increased.
• Small offerings were limited to domestic sacrifices, but occasionally larger sacrifices were organized, requiring substantial contributions from the clan. Public sacrifices were solemn occasions but also released energies through the festivities that followed.
• The wealth collected by the raja(king) through voluntary tribute and contributions from the vish(people) was consumed in the ritual and distributed as gifts to other rajas and priests at the end.
• The act of giving gifts was believed to ensure a return of gifts in even greater quantities. Sacrificial rites tended to increase the power of the priest, without whom the sacrifice could not occur, and of the raja who possessed the necessary wealth.
• Collecting this wealth meant pressuring the vish to part with their produce. The sacrifice helped the kshatriya(warrior class) assert greater power over the vish and shudra(laboring class).
• Public sacrifices were occasions for displaying and collecting the raja’s wealth through rituals. This wealth was consumed, and whatever remained was gifted, with some deliberately destroyed through rituals as part of the display.
• The patron of the sacrifice, usually a raja, competed with peers in the magnificence of the occasion and the generosity of the gifts. Such competitions in displaying wealth established the status and power of the yajamana, fostering the belief that even more wealth would come their way.
• The raja’s gifts to the priests enriched and empowered the Brahmins(priestly class). The sacrifice prevented the raja from accumulating wealth to the point where his status would be based on economic power rather than ritual sanction.
• However, economic power was necessary to create the type of kingship associated with the state, where the king controlled the accumulation and distribution of wealth. To amass the required wealth for these sacrifices, the raja had to make greater demands on the vish in the form of offerings and prestations and establish a rudimentary administration for support.

The point at which wealth could be accumulated and spent on various adjuncts to authority marked the transition where kingship began to rely on political authority rather than solely on ritual authority.

Over time, the ritual of sacrifice as a prerequisite for kingship could not remain a permanent feature. Once kingdoms were established, there were other demands on the wealth that supported these kingdoms.

At one level, the questioning of the centrality of the ritual was encouraged by new perceptions of the relationship between humans and the divine. At another level, the increased production of wealth in the middle Ganges Plain before urbanization, much of which could not be consumed in rituals, allowed rajas to accumulate wealth, contributing to a shift in societal and political requirements.

Conceptual Basis of Vedic Deities

Naturalistic Polytheism in the Rig Veda

• The Rig Veda reflects a belief in many gods who personified natural phenomena, a concept known as naturalistic polytheism.
• Some deities, like Agni(Fire),Surya(the Sun), and Ushas(Dawn), have names that directly indicate their connection to natural elements.

Indra and Maruts

• Indra, the most frequently mentioned god in the Rigveda, is depicted as a vigorous and strong warrior who wields a thunderbolt. He leads the Aryas to victory in battle, particularly against indigenous tribes, and is also invoked as a weather god who brings rain.
• The Maruts are companions of Indra who assist him in warfare.

Agni

• Agni represents various aspects of fire, including the cremation fire, fire that engulfs forests, fire that burns enemies, and the heat generated by tapas(austerity) and sexual desire.
• Most importantly, as the sacrificial fire, Agni serves as an intermediary between the gods and humans, functioning as a divine priest.

Soma

Soma is the personification of the soma plant and is described as a wise god who inspires poets to compose hymns. He is also identified with the moon in later hymns.

Varuna

• Varuna is associated with kshatra(secular power), sovereignty, and kingship. He is the keeper of the cosmic order known as rita and punishes wrongdoers with the fetters or bonds at his command.

Surya, Ashvins, Vayu, Rudra

• Surya, the sun god and son of Dyaus, drives away darkness by riding across the sky in his chariot.
• Vayu is the wind god.
• The Ashvins are twin gods associated with war and fertility.
• Rudra is a deity associated with great destructive potential and inspires fear.

Usha

• Usha, the goddess of dawn, is mentioned 300 times in the Rig Veda, with 20 hymns dedicated to her. She symbolizes the victory of light over darkness and is invoked by those desiring wealth.

Aditi

• Aditi, meaning freedom, is invoked to bestow freedom from sickness, harm, and evil.