Village Studies | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Village Studies

• During the British Raj, systematic reports on village life in India were produced. Ramakrishna Mukherjee, the first sociologist to analyze village communities, noted that before the British arrival, village social organization was recognized by several authorities. He observed that in regions like present-day Kerala, village social organization was either absent or very basic, while in other parts of the country, villages were the dominant social institution.
• British officers of the East India Company identified key features of Indian village communities, leading to the preparation of British Parliamentary Papers on India's villages. This marked the beginning of village studies, although the primary aim was administration.

When examining village studies from the British Raj to the present, scholars and agencies can be categorized into three groups:

1. Studies/reports by administrators
2. Studies by economists
3. Studies by sociologists and anthropologists

Studies/Reports by Administrators

• The East India Company officials in the Madras presidency made the first detailed findings about Indian villages.
• Holt later reported on the existence of village communities in northern India.
• Mackenzie and Sir Charles Metcalfe, members of the Governor General Council, provided detailed accounts of Indian village life.
• Elphore noted the presence of village communities in the Deccan region.
• The first Punjab Administrative Report was published in 1852 after the consolidation of power in that territory.
• Badele's accounts in 1899 suggested that "all land must have some landlord, which was under him."
• The British Parliamentary Papers clarified that previously, Zamindars were accountable managers collecting revenue, not lords and proprietors of the land.
• It was noted that the sale of land or other means of realizing arrears of land revenue was unusual before the government's introduction during the Company's rule.
• The village community system was documented to exist in various parts of India, including the Punjab.
  Gandhi glorified traditional village life and called for Gram Swaraj
  • If we go into the official records of East India Company, Ramakrishna Mukherjee concludes that village community system flourished practically all over India. It appears that the villages up to the advent of British India were autonomous. Jurisdiction of the village authorities extended over houses, streets, bazaars (markets),  burning  grounds, temples, wells, tanks, wasteland,  forests, forests lands, that the village council looked after the village differences, settled village disputes, organised works of public utility, acted as a trustee for minors and collected the government revenue and paid them into the central treasury.
  • The village autonomy was also manifested in the decision making process pertaining to a village. Each village had its representatives for decision taking. Local executive officers were usually hereditary servants and not the members of the central bureaucracy; they usually sided with the local bodies in their tussle with the central government.
  • Perhaps, the pioneering work on village studies was done by Gilbert Slater (1918). Slater, while writing in his introduction to the study of some South Indian villages, observes:
  • “Villages came before towns and even in the most industrialized countries, where all economic questions tend to be studied form an urban point of view, it is well to be reminded that the economic life of a town or city cannot be understood without reference to the lands which send its food and raw material, and the villages from which it attracts young men and women. The importance of rural activities and of village life in India in view of the enormous preponderance of its agricultural population over that engaged in mining, manufacture, commerce and transport is not likely to be overlooked and last of all in southern India, which has no coal mines and no great industry like cotton manufacture in Bombay and jute in Bengal.”

Studies Conducted by Economists

After World War I, both the British Raj and the Indian National Congress noticed a significant decline in India's rural economy. There was widespread poverty, disorder, and discontent among village societies. This rural discontent started to attract the attention of the government and the educated public in urban areas. Before the end of the war, intellectuals in Asian countries became aware of Karl Marx's writings on the Asian Mode of Production, which highlighted the struggles of the Indian peasantry. Marx's classic description of ancient Indian communities, based on available literature, emphasized their communal land ownership, blending of agriculture and handicrafts, and a fixed division of labor. He noted that most production was for direct use by the community, with only the surplus becoming a commodity. Marx described various roles within these communities, such as the 'chief inhabitant,' judge, police, bookkeeper, water distributor, religious leader, teacher, and craftsmen, all maintained at the community's expense.

• Realizing the impending agrarian crisis in villages after World War I, the British Raj established the first Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1926. The Indian National Movement also recognized the economic struggles faced by the peasantry. Ramakrishna Mukherjee highlighted the role of the national movement in sparking interest among social scientists in village studies. He noted that the mass movement of the 1920s, led by Gandhi and focused on rural issues, coincided with various village studies across India.
• S. J. Patel (1952) described the agrarian crisis that emerged across India after World War I, marked by increased political engagement among peasants, as seen in the Champaran and Kheda campaigns led by Gandhi. This period drew significant attention to the condition of cultivators in Indian society.
• Researchers like G. Keatings and Harold Mann in Bombay, Gilbert Slater in Madras, and E.V. Lucas in Punjab began intensive studies of specific villages and broader agricultural issues. Their findings generated considerable interest and underscored the need for further research.
• The historical roots of village studies from an economic perspective trace back to the period following World War I until India gained independence. During this time, the condition of the peasantry was dire, marked by famines, poverty, and widespread indebtedness. Leaders of the independence struggle sought to understand the causes of the villagers' extreme poverty.
• The Punjab Board of Economic Enquiry initiated village surveys conducted by individual researchers since the 1920s. The Bengal Board of Economic Enquiry was established in 1935 and also conducted village surveys. Tagore's Visva Bharti carried out village surveys around Shanti Niketan. J.C. Kumarappa, a Gandhian economist, developed a Gandhian economic perspective through surveys in villages. In the introduction to Kumarappa's book, "An Economic Survey of Matar Taluka" (1931), Kalelkar emphasized the importance of understanding rural conditions through statistics collected directly from peasants.
• Even in the 1940s, social scientists in India showed significant interest in village studies. They began extensive inquiries covering large areas, building on the understanding of rural society developed through numerous isolated village studies. Simultaneously, researchers focused on specific aspects of rural problems in particular regions.
• A critical examination of village studies by economists, voluntary agencies, and commissions reveals a consistent focus on the economic status of village residents. Poor agricultural conditions, drought, famine, and indebtedness were the primary concerns of rural studies. Ramakrishna Mukherjee noted that the economic and material well-being of rural individuals became the central focus of village studies during this period, addressing a crucial need for the country and the government.

Studies Conducted by Sociologists and Social Anthropologists

During the colonial era, anthropologists focused their attention on studying tribal communities. However, with the implementation of village development programs, these anthropologists felt compelled to shift their focus towards the study of village communities.

S.C. Dube (1958) explains this transition, noting that anthropologists are no longer primarily concerned with tribal culture. Instead, they are increasingly conducting research closer to home in village communities, where they have discovered exciting opportunities for both theoretical and applied social science research.

• This shift from tribal studies to village studies was convenient for social anthropologists. They had been utilizing the fieldwork method in their studies of tribal communities, and this same method proved to be suitable for the study of village communities as well.
• The concept of the ideal folk society, introduced by Redfield, was initially applied to analyze the cultures of Latin America. However, it was found to be largely ineffective in that context. Upon reevaluation, Redfield concluded that the issue did not lie with the concept itself. Subsequent studies demonstrated that folk societies tend to gradually lose their fundamental traits when exposed to more advanced cultures.
• As a result, folk societies undergo a transformation into village communities, distancing themselves from the ideal types, such as the one proposed by Redfield. This cultural contact gives rise to a continuum known as the folk-urban continuum. The intermediate category between the two extremes is represented by peasant societies or village communities.
  
  City based students visiting a village for its study
• Yogesh Atal (1969) evaluates rural studies conducted in India.
• The processes of change have opened new vistas of study.
• These changes presented new problems of analysis and research methodology.
• The holistic approach used for small tribal communities is not applicable here.
• The village community is a part of a wider whole - a greater society.
• To understand the village, it is essential to consider extraneous forces affecting the community.
• Village studies in the 1950s had an advantage over survey research.
• Surveys by government agencies and scholars were highly extensive.
• However, these surveys did not rigorously explore the depth of rural life.
• Some social scientists differentiate between rural sociology and rural anthropology.
• The field is common, but the methods and techniques are different.
• Rural sociology provides a generalized analysis on a national level.
• Rural anthropology focuses on an intensive study of particular village communities.
• In India, this difference is not necessary.
• Sociologists and anthropologists are jointly exploring village communities.
• This collaboration reflects a healthy trend in rural studies.
• The merging of the two disciplines is a welcome development (Atal, 1969).

Decade of the Flood of Village Studies: Social Background

In the post-colonial period, village studies shifted from colonial purposes to focus on village development, reconstruction, and the establishment of Panchayati Raj. This change made village studies a crucial part of nation-building efforts.

• Yogesh Atal (1969) highlighted the significance of 1955 in Indian anthropology and sociology, especially rural sociology. This year saw the publication of several important works on Indian villages by Indian, American, and British social scientists. Notable publications included Dube's "Indian Village," Majumdar's "Rural Profiles," Marriott's "Village India," and Srinivas' "India's Villages." A conference in Madras, chaired by Dr. Iravati Karve and attended by Prof. Robert Redfield, discussed Srinivas' concept of Sanskritisation, reinforcing its importance.
• Following the 1950s, there was a notable increase in village studies. Initially, anthropologists focused on tribal communities and castes within villages. However, with the advent of development plans, economists, sociologists, and social anthropologists collaborated to provide a comprehensive profile of village communities. Ramakrishna Mukherjee emphasized the need for interdisciplinary research in village studies, encouraging scientists from various disciplines to engage in this field.

Some Issues Included in Village Studies

Single village studies offer a holistic view of village life or concentrate on specific facets of rural life. Here are some notable examples of single village studies:

S.C. Dube's Indian Village (1955)

• Dube's study of Shamirpeth, a village in Andhra Pradesh, employs an interdisciplinary approach.
• Despite the presence of multiple castes, the village exhibits integration.
• The methodology is structural-functional, and the study is holistic in nature.

M.N. Srinivas' India's Villages (1955)

• This edited volume includes contributions from Indian, British, and US anthropologists.
• The studies consider the entirety of village life, though some issues remain untouched.
• The concept of dominant caste, introduced by Srinivas, is a key focus.
• The methodology employed is structural-functional.

Marriott's Village India (1955)

• Similar to Dube and Srinivas, this edited work examines villages through the lens of Indian civilization.
• The methodology is structural-functional, with a focus on the concept of caste.
• Marriott's concepts of universalization and parochialization are significant in understanding the interplay of great and little tradition.

D.N. Majumdar's Rural Profiles (1955)

• This edited volume revisits Srinivas' concepts, including Sanskritisation and dominant castes.
• Some contributors discuss the concept of de-Sanskritisation, suggesting a reverse process of Brahmin castes identifying with other castes.
• The studies primarily focus on single villages.

F.G. Bailey's Study of Orissa Villages (1957)

• Bailey's research addresses issues of caste and class formation at the local level.
• The methodology is structural-functional, with an emphasis on the changing agrarian structure.

D.N. Majumdar's Study of Mohana Village (1958)

• Majumdar's work conceptualizes the village as a way of life, employing Redfield's concept of little community.
• The study highlights the unique communication system shaped by caste relations.

G.S. Ghurye's After a Century and a Quarter (1960)

• Ghurye's study of Lonikand village traces social and cultural changes over 100 years.
• The work contrasts Coats' 1819 description with Ghurye's contemporary observations, focusing on the pervasive role of religion.

Andre Beteille's Study of Sripuram Village

• Beteille's intensive study of Sripuram, a multi-caste village in South India, emphasizes social transformation.
• The research highlights the shift towards a more open social system and the enduring significance of caste in stratification.

A.R. Desai's Rural Sociology in India (1969)

• Desai's compilation includes various village studies and offers an introduction to rural sociology in India.
• The work addresses historical aspects of village life, rural stratification, agrarian unrest, land reforms, and social change.

Village studies have gained popularity in social anthropology and sociology. Despite critical debates, these studies have established a tradition in understanding Indian society through the lens of villages. Louis Dumont's critique of treating villages as microcosms of Indian civilization and Yogendra Singh's emphasis on cognitive structural analysis highlight the ongoing discussions in this field.

Village Unity and Change: Insights from Yogendra Singh

• Yogendra Singh comments on the work of Dumont and other authors regarding the concept of village unity in India. He points out that while villages exhibit elements of structural unity such as territoriality, kinship, and economic solidarity, these are often undermined by caste divisions and political party influences.
• The village unity is particularly challenged in places like Rajasthan, where strong caste identities, particularly among Jats and Rajputs, create divisions within the village. Singh notes that village cohesion is not as straightforward as it seems, as these caste clusters can fragment the community.
• Singh also highlights the existence of village institutions that span multiple villages, with inter-caste relations often based on reciprocity. For example, the jajmani system historically connected villages through mutual obligations. However, contemporary studies in social anthropology suggest that this village unity has become more of a myth today. The jajmani system has largely been replaced by cash transactions, reflecting broader changes in economic institutions, power structures, and inter-caste relationships.

A significant driver of these changes is land reform, which has had a profound impact on the sociological landscape of villages. Land reforms have been implemented through various measures such as:

(i) Abolition of intermediaries;
(ii) Tenancy reforms;
(iii) Ceiling on landholdings and redistribution of land;
(iv) Reconsolidation of holdings and prevention of holdings from deteriorating to uneconomic size;
(v) Emphasis on the development of cooperative farming;
(vi) Religio-economic movements like Bhoodan, where surplus land is gifted by the rich to the poor.
While these measures have been implemented differently across various states, they have led to some uniform sociological consequences. The traditional form of village unity has been transformed into a new kind of unity shaped by land reforms.
Singh's analysis of village studies in India suggests that villages have remained a fundamental micro-structure throughout history. The observations made by Metcalfe during the British period, describing village communities as "little republics" with a high degree of self-sufficiency, resonate with the views of Mahatma Gandhi, who advocated for villages to be morally and economically integrated within Indian society.

In contemporary times, Singh emphasizes the importance of villages as micro-structures in national development planning and political-cultural consciousness, reinforcing their vital role in the socio-economic fabric of the country.