Weekly Current Affairs (15th to 21st September 2024) Part - 1 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

GS3/Economy

Need for Reforms in the Jute Industry

Why in news?

• Recently, the challenges faced by jute cultivation were brought to light by the Indian Jute Mills Association, which has called for reforms in this sector.

What are the Key Facts About Jute?

• About Jute: Jute is a natural fibre categorized as a bast fibre, similar to flax, hemp, kenaf, and ramie. It has been traditionally cultivated in the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in present-day West Bengal, India, and the plains of Bangladesh. The first jute mill in India was established in 1855 at Rishra, near Kolkata.
• Ideal Condition: Jute thrives in various soil types but prefers fertile loamy alluvial soil. It requires a relative humidity of 40-90% and temperatures ranging from 17°C to 41°C, along with well-distributed rainfall of over 120 cm for optimal growth.
• Species: The two main species of jute produced commercially are Tossa and White jute. Another bast fibre crop known as Mesta comprises two species, Hibiscus cannabinus and Hibiscus sabdariffa.
• Harvesting Techniques: Jute can be harvested at various growth stages, typically between 100 and 150 days after planting. Harvesting at the pre-bud or bud stage yields the highest quality fibre, though in lower quantities. Older crops yield more but the fibre quality diminishes, becoming coarse, and the stems do not rett properly. The retting process separates plant fibres from the stem using moisture and microorganisms.
• Retting Process: Jute stems are bundled and submerged in water, often covered with water hyacinth or other weeds that do not release tannin or iron. The ideal retting occurs in slow-moving clean water at around 34 degrees Celsius. The process is complete when the fibres separate easily from the wood.
• Versatility: Jute is a robust grass that can grow up to 2.5 metres tall, with each part having various uses. The outer stem layer is used for jute products, while the leaves are edible and can be cooked in various dishes. The inner woody stems are suitable for paper manufacturing, and the roots enhance subsequent crop yields.
• Production: Major jute-growing states include West Bengal, Assam, and Bihar, primarily cultivated by marginal and small farmers.
• Employment: Jute is a labour-intensive crop providing substantial employment opportunities, supporting the livelihoods of approximately 14 million people.
• Importance: Known as the golden fibre, jute is India’s second most significant cash crop after cotton, making India the largest global producer of jute.

What are the Benefits of Using Jute Fibres?

• Biodegradable Alternatives: Many nations are aiming to reduce plastic usage, particularly plastic bags. Jute bags present an eco-friendly and biodegradable alternative.
• Value-Added Products: Beyond traditional uses, jute can also be transformed into products such as paper, pulp, composites, textiles, wall coverings, flooring, and garments.
• Doubling Farmers’ Income: An acre of jute can yield around nine quintals of fibre, selling for Rs 3,500-4,000 per quintal, while the woody stalk and leaves can fetch approximately Rs 9,000. This translates to earnings of Rs 35,000-40,000 per acre.
• Sustainability: Jute requires only half the land and less than one-fifth the water needed for cotton cultivation, along with significantly fewer chemicals. It is naturally pest-resistant and grows rapidly, minimizing weed competition.
• Carbon Neutral Crop: The carbon dioxide emissions from jute cultivation are carbon-neutral, as the fibre originates from plant sources, contributing to biomass.
• Carbon Sequestration: Jute can sequester about 1.5 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare annually, aiding in climate change mitigation due to its rapid growth rate.

What Challenges are Involved in Jute Farming?

• Low Availability of Natural Water: Historically, annual flooding allowed jute stalks to be submerged for retting directly in fields. Reduced flooding now necessitates transporting jute to artificial ponds for retting.
• Unrealised Potential: The jute industry operates at only 55% capacity, affecting over 50,000 workers. Demand for jute bags is expected to decline to 30 lakh bales by 2024-25.
• Outdated Technology: Many jute mills use machinery over 30 years old, leading to decreased efficiency and increased production costs.
• Lack of Product Diversification: While jute is versatile, its applications in high-growth areas like insulation and geotextiles remain underutilized, hindering industry growth.
• Concentration of Jute Mills: Approximately 70 jute mills exist in India, with 60 located along the Hooghly River, causing distribution inefficiencies. Mills outside this region, especially in northeastern India, struggle to access resources and markets.
• Inadequate Support: Despite the Jute Packaging Materials (Compulsory Use in Packing Commodities) Act of 1987, the sector faces challenges in policy implementation and support.

What are the Government Schemes Related to Jute Industry?

• Technical Textiles Mission
• Minimum Support Price for Jute
• National Jute Policy 2005
• Jute Technology Mission (JTM)
• Jute SMART

Way Forward

• Golden Fiber Revolution: Various stakeholders have long advocated for a 'Golden Fiber Revolution' aimed at boosting jute cultivation, enhancing product quality, promoting exports, and improving the livelihoods of farmers and workers.
• Flood Management: Promoting water management practices can help restore natural flooding or simulate it through controlled methods, simplifying the retting process.
• Upgrade Machinery: Investment in modern technologies and machinery for jute processing should be encouraged, potentially supported by government subsidies or low-interest loans.
• Promote Product Innovation: Research and development should focus on exploring new applications for jute. Companies could receive tax benefits, grants, or subsidies to foster innovation.
• Enforce and Expand Policies: Implement the Jute Packaging Materials Act effectively, reviewing it to meet current industry needs.
• Policy and Industry Review: Regularly assess and adjust policies and practices to align with market changes and technological advancements.

Mains Question:

• Q. Critically analyse the challenges faced by jute industry and suggest a comprehensive strategy to revitalise it.

GS2/Governance

India’s Digital Public Infrastructure

Why in News?

• During its G20 presidency, India emphasized Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) as a crucial means to promote inclusive and sustainable development via technological advancements. The essential characteristics of DPI—openness, interoperability, and scalability—underscore its importance not only as a technological framework but also as a vital facilitator for improving both public and private service delivery.

What is Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)?

• Definition: DPI refers to the foundational digital systems and services offered by the public sector to bolster the functioning of a digital economy and society.
• Digital Identity Systems: Platforms for verifying and managing individual identities online, such as Aadhaar.
• Digital Payment Systems: Infrastructure that enables secure financial transactions, including digital wallets, payment gateways, and banking platforms.
• Public Digital Services: Online services provided by the government, such as e-governance portals, public health information, and digital education platforms.
• Data Infrastructure: Systems designed for secure storage, management, and sharing of data, ensuring data sovereignty and privacy, such as Digilocker.
• Cybersecurity Frameworks: Protocols and measures to protect digital assets and personal information from cyber threats, exemplified by Information Security Management System (ISMS).
• Broadband and Connectivity: Infrastructure aimed at guaranteeing widespread and equitable access to high-speed internet across various regions.

The categories of DPI can be broadly divided into two groups:

• Foundational DPIs: Initiatives that focus on establishing resilient digital frameworks, which include digital identity systems, payment infrastructures, and data exchange platforms, such as UPI and Data Empowerment and Protection Architecture (DEPA).
• Sectoral DPIs: These provide specialized services tailored to specific sector needs, such as the Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission.

Impact of DPIs:

• Aadhaar-based authentication facilitated the administration of over 2.2 billion Covid-19 vaccines through the CoWIN platform.
• India has seen over 1.3 billion Aadhaar enrollments and more than 10 billion UPI transactions monthly.
• DPIs have significantly transformed areas like credit access, e-commerce, education, healthcare, and urban governance.

What are the Challenges Related to India’s DPI?

• Data Privacy and Security Concerns: The extensive collection and utilization of personal data by DPIs raise significant issues regarding data privacy, security, and potential misuse of sensitive information.
• Digital Divide: Despite rapid digital advancements, there remains limited access to digital infrastructure, including internet connectivity, smartphones, and digital literacy. By 2024, India's internet penetration rate is expected to be 52%, indicating that more than half of the 1.4 billion population will have internet access.
• Regulatory Gaps and Fragmentation: The fast-evolving nature of digital technologies demands dynamic regulatory frameworks, but existing mechanisms are often inadequate to address challenges like platform monopolies, data monopolization, and cross-border data flows. For instance, the Reserve Bank of India’s regulation requiring local storage of payment data has led to compliance challenges for international payment providers.
• Cybersecurity Threats: Increased dependence on digital infrastructure exposes India to various cybersecurity threats, including cyberattacks, ransomware, and state-sponsored hacking. Strengthening the resilience of critical DPIs against these threats is vital for national security. As of 2021, Maharashtra faced 42% of all ransomware attacks in India.
• Monopolization of Digital Infrastructure: The risk of monopolistic practices can undermine smaller entities’ profitability due to their inability to upgrade. The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) currently operates most instant payment systems.
• Sustainability of Digital Infrastructure: Ensuring the long-term sustainability of DPIs regarding financial viability, technical maintenance, and scalability poses ongoing challenges that require continuous innovation and investment.

What Steps can be Taken to Increase the Resilience of India’s DPI?

• Strengthening Data Protection and Privacy Frameworks: A comprehensive data protection law is essential to safeguard citizens’ data and privacy. This should encompass strict norms for data collection, storage, and usage, along with clear guidelines on consent, accountability, and recourse for data breaches.
• Bridging the Digital Divide: Expanding digital infrastructure is crucial to ensure equitable access, necessitating initiatives aimed at enhancing digital literacy so all societal segments can engage in the digital economy.
• Developing Adaptive Regulatory Mechanisms: Creating dynamic and forward-thinking regulatory frameworks is vital to tackle emerging issues such as platform monopolies, data monopolization, and cross-border data governance. These frameworks need to be flexible enough to adapt to the fast-paced evolution of digital technologies and markets.
• Enhancing Cybersecurity Measures: Regular audits, simulations, and real-time monitoring should be institutionalized to mitigate cyber risks effectively.
• Fostering Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Promoting collaboration between the government and private sector is crucial to harness technical expertise, innovation, and resources. PPPs can expedite digital infrastructure deployment, foster innovation, and help overcome scaling challenges in digital services.
• Need for Soft Law: While strict legal frameworks may impede DPI development, soft law instruments that promote best practices (like data encryption and access restrictions) could protect public interests. Segregating aspects of DPIs under statutory, contractual, and soft law frameworks can facilitate effective management of both innovation and regulation.

Conclusion

India’s G20 presidency highlighted the transformative potential of DPI as a key driver for inclusive and sustainable development. To enhance DPI resilience, India must implement robust data protection frameworks, bridge the digital divide, create adaptive regulations, and ensure the long-term sustainability of its digital infrastructure through ongoing innovation and public-private partnerships.

Mains Question:

Q. Critically examine the role of Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) in improving governance and service delivery in India.

GS2/Polity

New Standards for Preventive Detention

Why in news?

• Recently, in the Jaseela Shaji vs the Union of India case, 2024, the Supreme Court (SC) established new standards regarding preventive detention. This ruling was in response to a preventive detention order under the Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities (COFEPOSA) Act, 1974, which had been upheld by the Kerala High Court.

What are the New Standards for Preventive Detention?

• Fair and Effective Opportunity: The SC ruled that the authority detaining an individual must provide copies of all documents used as the basis for detention. If this is not done, the detention becomes invalid.
• Constitutional Right: The SC emphasized that personal liberty is a crucial constitutional right. Not supplying all relevant documents to enable the detainee to challenge their detention violates the fundamental right under Article 22(5) of the Constitution.
• Non-arbitrary Actions: Authorities must prevent arbitrary actions and respect the rights of detainees at all stages, including providing documents in a language the detainee understands.
• Avoiding Undue Delay: Authorities are required to ensure timely communication regarding detention, utilizing available technology to prevent unnecessary delays.

What are the Key Facts About Protection Against Arrest and Detention?

Constitutional Basis: Article 22 of the Indian Constitution grants protections to individuals who are arrested or detained, ensuring fundamental rights are upheld under various circumstances.

Types of Detention:

• Punitive Detention: This occurs after an individual is tried and convicted in court for a crime.
• Preventive Detention: This happens without trial, aimed at preventing future offenses based on suspicion, serving as a precautionary measure.

Parts of Article 22:

• First Part: Deals with rights under ordinary law, which include the right to be informed of arrest grounds, the right to legal representation, the right to prompt judicial review, and protection against prolonged detention.
• Second Part: Focuses on protections under preventive detention laws, including the maximum duration of detention, communication of grounds for detention, and the right to representation.
• Legislative Power on Preventive Detention: The Parliament holds exclusive authority to enact laws for preventive detention regarding defense, foreign affairs, and national security, while state legislatures can legislate for reasons related to state security and public order.
• Parliament's Power to Extend Detention: Article 22 allows Parliament to define circumstances for detaining individuals beyond three months without advisory board approval and to specify procedures for inquiries.
• Key Amendments: The 44th Amendment Act, 1978, aimed to reduce the detention period without advisory board approval from three to two months, although this provision has not been implemented yet.
• Preventive Detention Laws in India: Various laws have been enacted, including the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), COFEPOSA, National Security Act (NSA), and Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA).
• Criticism of Preventive Detention in India: Concerns have arisen regarding the misuse of preventive detention for political gain, lack of checks and balances, and the absence of transparency.

What are Important Judicial Cases Related to Preventive Detention?

• Shibban Lal v. State of Uttar Pradesh Case, 1954: The SC indicated that courts do not have the authority to evaluate the facts that justify detention.
• Khudiram v. State of West Bengal Case, 1975: The SC ruled that it cannot assess the validity of detention grounds under MISA.
• Nand Lal Bajaj v. The State of Punjab and Anr Case, 1981: The SC acknowledged inconsistencies of preventive detention laws with parliamentary principles.
• Rekha v. State Of Tamil Nadu Case, 2011: The SC termed preventive detention as "repugnant to democratic ideas," advocating for its limited application.
• Mariappan vs the District Collector And Others Case, 2014: The Madras High Court reiterated that preventive detention is not meant for punishing detainees but for preventing harm.
• Prem Narayan v. Union of India Case, 2019: The Allahabad High Court stated that preventive detention infringes on personal freedom and should not be imposed casually.
• Abhayraj Gupta v. Superintendent, Central Jail, Bareilly Case, 2021: The court ruled that preventive detention is inappropriate when an individual is already detained.
• Conclusion: Preventive detention, while constitutionally allowed, poses challenges to democratic principles and personal liberty. Although necessary for security, unchecked powers can infringe on fundamental rights, necessitating reforms to balance security with human rights, ensuring fairness, and preventing misuse.
• Mains Question: Examine the constitutional provisions related to preventive detention in India. How does the judiciary help in balancing individual liberty and national security concerning preventive detention?

GS3/Environment

Arctic Sea Ice Impact on Indian Monsoon

• Recent research has uncovered that the diminishing levels of Arctic sea ice, primarily due to climate change, are affecting the Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR), resulting in greater variability and unpredictability. This study involved collaboration between India's National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) and South Korea's Korea Polar Research Institute. Additionally, another investigation links the substantial rain surplus observed in northwestern India during this monsoon season to long-term trends associated with the climate crisis.

How Arctic Sea Ice Influences the Indian Monsoon?

• Central Arctic Sea Ice Decline: The reduction of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean and nearby areas leads to decreased rainfall in western and peninsular India while increasing rainfall in central and northern regions. This phenomenon occurs due to enhanced heat transfer from the ocean to the atmosphere, which strengthens Rossby waves and modifies global weather patterns.
• Enhanced Rossby Waves: These waves create high pressure over northwest India and low pressure over the Mediterranean, causing the subtropical easterly jet to shift northward. This shift results in increased precipitation over western and peninsular India.
• Low Sea Ice in the Barents-Kara Sea Region: A decline in sea ice in this area causes higher pressure conditions over southwest China and a positive Arctic Oscillation, affecting worldwide weather systems. The reduction in sea ice allows heat to rise, leading to calm, clear skies over northwest Europe. This disruption alters upper atmospheric conditions in subtropical Asia and India, which results in high rainfall in northeastern India while central and northwestern regions may face a deficit.
• Climate Change’s Role: The warming Arabian Sea and moisture influx from adjacent water bodies further destabilize weather conditions, intensifying the variability of monsoon rainfall.

What are the Findings of the Study Related to Surplus Rain in North-Western (NW) India?

• Increased Moisture from the Arabian Sea: North-western India is witnessing a wetter monsoon season attributed to augmented moisture inflow from the Arabian Sea. This trend is projected to persist, particularly under scenarios of high emissions.
• Changes in Wind Patterns: The rise in rainfall in this region correlates with altered wind dynamics. Enhanced wind speeds over the Arabian Sea and reduced wind speeds over northern India lead to moisture being trapped in northwestern India.
• Enhanced Evaporation: The increased evaporation from the Arabian Sea, driven by wind patterns, also contributes to the region's heightened precipitation levels.
• Shifts in Pressure Gradients: Alterations in wind patterns stem from changes in pressure gradients, with heightened pressure around the Mascarene Islands and diminished pressure in the equatorial Indian Ocean, which strengthens the monsoon winds that deliver rain to northwestern India.
• Amplified Winds from East-West Pressure Gradient: An increased east-west pressure gradient, influenced by higher pressure over the eastern Pacific, further intensifies these winds, potentially leading to even wetter monsoon seasons in the future.

What is the Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall (ISMR)?

• About: The Indian summer monsoon is a significant climatic event characterized by moist air from the Indian Ocean moving towards the Indian subcontinent. It typically occurs from July to September, with the majority of rainfall occurring in July and August.
• Factors Influencing ISMR: ISMR is affected by the surface temperatures of the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans, as well as the circum-global teleconnection (CGT), a large-scale atmospheric wave flowing at mid-latitudes.
• Formation: Sunlight warms the Central Asian and Indian landmass more rapidly than the surrounding ocean, creating a low-pressure zone known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The southeast trade winds are deflected towards the Indian landmass due to the Coriolis force, gathering moisture as they cross the equator and travel over the Arabian Sea, eventually releasing it as rainfall over India.
• Monsoon Dynamics: The southwest monsoon divides into two branches: one that brings rain to the west coast (Arabian Sea arm) and another that affects the eastern and northeastern regions (Bay of Bengal arm). These branches converge over Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.

India Winter Monsoon Rainfall:

• Overview: The northeast monsoon represents the reversal phase of the monsoon that occurs during winter months (October to December), driven by high-pressure systems forming over the Siberian and Tibetan plateaus.

What is the Significance of the Monsoon for India?

• Agricultural Backbone: The monsoon is essential for Indian agriculture, significantly impacting food security and rural livelihoods. Approximately 61% of farmers depend on rainfall, making a well-distributed monsoon crucial for 55% of India’s rain-fed crops.
• Water Resource Management: The monsoon accounts for 70-90% of India’s annual rainfall between June and September, vital for replenishing rivers, lakes, and groundwater. This period is critical for irrigation, drinking water, and hydroelectric power generation.
• Economic Ripple Effects: A favorable monsoon boosts rural incomes and consumer demand, while adverse conditions can lead to food price inflation and negatively impact the overall economy, influencing monetary policies and government expenditures.
• Ecological Balance: The monsoon supports India’s diverse ecosystems, affecting biodiversity, wildlife migration, and habitat health. Alterations in monsoon patterns can disrupt flora and fauna.
• Climate Regulation: The Indian monsoon plays a pivotal role in global climate regulation, impacting atmospheric patterns and interacting with phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña.

Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the impact of shifting monsoon patterns on agricultural productivity in India. How do these changes affect food security and rural livelihoods?

GS1/History & Culture

Shivaji Maharaj and Surat Raid

Why in News?

• Recently, a 35-foot statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was unveiled at Rajkot Fort in Malvan, Sindhudurg district, but it collapsed in less than a year. This contrasts sharply with the Sindhudurg Fort, built by Shivaji Maharaj 357 years ago, which remains intact and has played a crucial role in military operations, especially during the Surat raids. A significant portion of the fort's construction was financed through the wealth obtained from these raids.

Key Facts about Sindhudurg Fort:

• Construction: The fort's construction started on 25 November 1664 and was finished by 29 March 1667. It was built on Kurte Island in the Arabian Sea after careful examination by Shivaji Maharaj and expert Hiroji Indulkar.
• Cost of Construction: The estimated cost was one crore hons, a gold coin used during Shivaji Maharaj's reign in the 17th century.
• Maritime Dominance: Shivaji aimed to establish maritime control and enhance economic stability through a robust navy. The fort's strategic location allowed it to dominate maritime access and defend against foreign threats like the Siddis and Portuguese.
• Architectural Excellence: The fort featured a serpentine wall stretching four kilometers, standing ten meters high, with 45 stairways and facilities for guards and cannons. It also had a statue of Hanuman at the entrance and was supported by smaller forts like Padmagad and Rajkot for additional security.
• Current Status: Sindhudurg Fort stands as a symbol of Shivaji Maharaj's military and strategic prowess and a testament to Maratha naval strength and fortification techniques.

What were the Surat Raids Conducted by Shivaji?

• Strategic Importance of Surat: Surat was referred to as 'the greatest emporium of the Orient' and was vital for Mughal trade with Europeans, Iranians, and Arabs, also serving as a transit point for pilgrims to Mecca. Targeting Surat was pivotal to disrupt Mughal economic stability and establish Maratha dominance.
• First Raid on Surat (January 1664): Shivaji's first raid caught the Mughal forces by surprise, leading their governor, Inayat Khan, to flee, rendering the city defenseless. The loot from this raid, including cash, gold, silver, and pearls, was estimated at one crore rupees and helped fund the construction of Sindhudurg Fort.
• Impact: The raids alarmed the English, prompting them to relocate their warehouse from Surat to Bombay, while the Portuguese gifted Bombay to the English by May 1664, enhancing Shivaji Maharaj's legendary status.
• Second Raid on Surat (October 1670): In this raid, Shivaji seized wealth worth approximately Rs 6.6 million, sparing Dutch and English merchants but targeting the Mughals. The loot included gems and coins valued at around five million rupees.
• Strategic Significance of Surat Raids: The raids were designed to disrupt Mughal economic stability and display Maratha power, executed with careful planning and restraint to minimize civilian harm while weakening Mughal rule.

What are Key Facts About Shivaji Maharaj?

• Birth: Born on 19th February 1630 at Shivneri Fort in Pune, Maharashtra.
• Early Life: As a teenager, he took control of Torna Fort from Bijapur and acquired Kondana Fort from Adil Shah.
• Death: Shivaji Maharaj died on 3 April 1680 at Raigad after a prolonged illness.
• Important Battles:
  • Battle of Pratapgad (1659) against Afzal Khan.
  • Battle of Surat (1664) against a Mughal Governor.
  • Battle of Purandar (1665) against Jai Singh, a Mughal commander.
  • Battle of Sangamner (1679) against the Mughal Empire, marking Shivaji's last battle.
• Title: Crowned king of the Marathas in June 1674 at Raigad, taking titles such as Chhatrapati and Haindava Dharmodhhaarak.
• Administration:
  • Central Administration: The king was the supreme leader supported by eight ministers known as the Ashtapradhan.
  • Revenue Administration: Key income sources were Chauth (1/4th revenue demand) and Sardeshmukhi (an additional 10% levy on lands claimed by Marathas).

What was the Journey of Marathas after Shivaji?

• Turbulence After Shivaji Maharaj’s Death: Following Shivaji's death, his son Sambhaji ascended but faced a short-lived reign due to capture and execution by the Mughals in 1689. The empire then saw leadership from regents and Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, Shivaji's brother.
• Maratha’s Rise Under Peshwa: The appointment of Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa in 1713 marked a significant turning point, with diplomacy and reforms paving the way for Maratha expansion. Baji Rao I (1720-1740) further extended control into northern India, solidifying dominance through strategic military actions.
• Maratha Confederacy: By the early 18th century, the central power weakened amid internal conflicts and external pressures. The Confederacy emerged as a loose alliance of various Maratha states and leaders, including the Peshwa of Pune and the Holkars of Indore.

Maratha Struggle with the British:

• First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782): Concluded with the Treaty of Salbai, which ceded Salsette Island to the British and opened Maratha ports to British trade.
• Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805): The British under Arthur Wellesley defeated combined Sindhias and Bhonsle forces, leading to a Subsidiary alliance.
• Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818): Marked the final defeat of the Marathas, resulting in the dissolution of the Maratha Empire.

Conclusion

The discussion surrounding the statue emphasizes the importance of respecting and preserving historical figures, ensuring that modern tributes accurately reflect their legacies. The criticism of current administration and project management highlights the need for improved preservation efforts, reinforcing the value of these sites as cultural heritage.

Mains Question:
Q. How did Shivaji's strategies and leadership shape the Maratha resistance against Mughal expansion?

GS2/Polity

Use of Emergency Provisions in Manipur and India’s Federal Structure

• The recent unrest in Manipur has reignited discussions regarding the relationship between the Centre and the States, particularly focusing on how the Centre manages internal crises in states. This situation has brought attention to the emergency provisions available under the Indian Constitution.

What are Emergency Provisions for the Centre to Protect State?

Constitutional Basis:

• Articles 355 and 356, found in Part XVIII of the Indian Constitution (Articles 352 to 360), outline the responsibilities of the Centre and State governments during emergencies.
• Article 355 mandates that the Centre must protect States from both external and internal disturbances, ensuring that State governments function according to the Constitution.
• Article 356 allows for the imposition of President’s rule in a State if its government is unable to operate constitutionally, enabling the Centre to take direct control.

How does the Emergency Provision Apply to the Situation in Manipur?

• The intensity of the violence in Manipur, including assaults on civilians and the looting of police armories, indicates a situation that exceeds normal law and order breakdowns.
• Although the crisis is severe, President’s rule under Article 356 has not been enacted, raising concerns about potential political influences on the response.
• The Centre has been acting under Article 355 to ensure the State is protected and governed in accordance with constitutional principles, though some critics suggest these measures are insufficient.

What are the Judgements Regarding the Articles 355 and 356?

• Historical Misuse: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a principal architect of the Constitution, intended for Articles 355 and 356 to be rarely used, ideally becoming "dead letters." However, Article 356 has been misapplied numerous times, often leading to the dismissal of elected State governments under dubious circumstances.
• S R Bommai Case, 1994: This pivotal Supreme Court ruling limited the misuse of Article 356, asserting that President’s rule should only be implemented in instances of genuine breakdown of constitutional order, not just law and order issues. It also established that such actions are subject to judicial review.
• Expansion of Article 355: While Article 356 is restricted, Article 355's interpretation has broadened. Significant cases have allowed the Union to undertake a wider array of actions to protect States and ensure compliance with constitutional governance.

What are the Recommendations Regarding Article 355 and Article 356?

• Sarkaria Commission (1987): This Commission recommended that Article 356 should be applied with extreme caution and only in the rarest circumstances, after all other alternatives have been exhausted.
• National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2002) and Punchhi Commission (2010): These commissions emphasized that Article 355 creates a duty for the Union to act, and that President’s rule should be a last resort.
• Punchhi Commission's Proposal: It suggested "localizing emergency provisions" under Articles 355 and 356, enabling localized areas to be placed under Governor's rule rather than imposing it across an entire state, with a limitation of three months for such local emergencies.

What is the Difference Between President’s Rule and National Emergency?

Conclusion:

• The ongoing violence in Manipur has highlighted the complexities surrounding Centre-State relations and the application of emergency provisions.
• While Article 355 enables the Centre to respond to crises, Article 356 necessitates caution in its application.
• The situation emphasizes the urgent need for decisive actions to restore peace while adhering to constitutional frameworks.

Mains Question:

Q. Examine the constitutional provisions for addressing internal disturbances of a State. How are these provisions applicable to the recent violence in Manipur?

GS2/Governance

Rising Rape Crimes in India

Why in news?

• The surge in rape crimes across India has reignited demands for comprehensive legal reforms and changes in societal behaviour to address sexual violence. These incidents have fueled calls for harsher punishments, including the death penalty for rape, and urgent action to create a safer environment for women.

What are the Legal Framework Regarding Rape in India?

• About: Rape, as defined by the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023, occurs when a man engages in sexual intercourse with a woman without her consent, against her will, through coercion, deception, or when the woman is under 18 or unable to consent.

Types of Rape in India:

• Aggravated Rape: This involves rape committed by individuals in positions of authority or trust over the victim, such as police officers, hospital staff, or guardians.
• Rape and Murder: Refers to incidents where rape results in the victim's death or a vegetative state.
• Gang Rape: Occurs when multiple individuals rape a woman simultaneously.
• Marital Rape: Describes forceful sexual intercourse between a husband and wife without the consent of either party.

Laws Governing Rape in India:

• Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023: This new law replaces the colonial-era Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860, and introduces significant changes in handling sexual offences, defining aggravated forms of rape, including gang rape, and imposing harsher penalties for gang rape of minors, including life imprisonment or death penalty.
• Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013: Following the Nirbhaya case in Delhi, this act increased the minimum sentence for rape from seven to ten years, and for cases resulting in the victim's death or vegetative state, the minimum was raised to twenty years.
• Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2018: This act established even stricter penalties, including the death penalty for the rape of girls under the age of 12.
• Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012: Aimed at protecting children from sexual assault, harassment, and exploitation.

Rights of Rape Victims in India:

• Right to Zero FIR: Victims can file a Zero FIR at any police station, irrespective of jurisdiction, which will then be transferred to the appropriate station for investigation.
• Free Medical Treatment: Under Section 357C of the CrPC (now replaced by the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, BNSS, 2023), hospitals are mandated to provide free medical treatment to rape victims.
• No Two-Finger Test: Medical examinations must not include the two-finger test, which has been deemed a violation of the survivor's dignity.
• Harassment-Free and Time-Bound Investigation: Statements should be recorded by female officers at convenient times and locations for the victim, ensuring the presence of family members or interpreters if needed.
• Right to Compensation: Section 357A of the CrPC mandates compensation for victims, guided by the National Legal Services Authority's compensation scheme.
• Trial with Dignity and Protection: Trials should be conducted in camera, avoiding invasive questions about the victim’s sexual history, ideally presided over by a female judge.

Why is There an Increase in Rape Cases in India?

• Normalization of Rape: A social environment exists where sexual violence is normalized and excused, contributing to increased incidents. This phenomenon is supported by various behaviors and attitudes.
• Rape Jokes: Humorous remarks about sexual violence trivialize the seriousness of these crimes.
• Sexist Behavior: Actions and attitudes that demean women often perpetuate harmful stereotypes.
• Victim Blaming: Survivors are often held responsible for the violence they experience, with societal attitudes focusing on their attire, as evidenced by a survey indicating that 68% of judges in India hold such views.
• Alcoholism: Alcohol consumption is a significant factor in higher rape rates, as it impairs judgment and can lead to aggressive behavior.
• Misogynistic Representation in Media: Many Indian films and shows objectify women, reinforcing harmful stereotypes and behaviors that contribute to a culture of rape.
• Sex Ratio Imbalance: A demographic imbalance, as seen in the 2011 Census with 943 females for every 1,000 males, correlates with increased rape incidents.
• Insufficient Female Police Representation: With only 11.75% female officers in 2022, many women may feel uncomfortable reporting assaults to male officers.
• Acceptance of Domestic Abuse: The normalization of domestic violence extends to broader toleration of sexual violence.
• Blaming Victims for Immoral Behavior: Women engaging in behaviors deemed "immoral" (like drinking) are unjustly blamed for assaults, perpetuating a culture that fails to protect them.
• Advising Silence: Victims are often discouraged from reporting due to fears of societal judgment, which protects offenders and perpetuates abuse.

Why are Rape Conviction Rates So Low in India?

• Low Conviction Rates: Even with over 31,000 reported rape cases in 2022, conviction rates remain low, at about 27%-28% from 2018 to 2022, according to National Crime Records Bureau data.
• Systemic Issues: Corruption within the legal system, including bribery, often results in mishandled or dismissed cases, leading to underreporting due to fear or lack of trust in law enforcement.
• Socio-Cultural Factors: Societal attitudes scrutinize survivors, leading to victim-blaming that discourages them from seeking justice.
• Inconsistent Law Enforcement: The uneven application of rape laws hampers effective enforcement, and the legal framework fails to adequately address crimes against men and transgender individuals.
• Poor Evidence Collection: Ineffective evidence gathering can weaken cases, complicating the path to securing convictions.
• Ineffective Legal Support: Many survivors lack sufficient psychological, legal, or medical support, which can hinder their pursuit of justice.
• Judicial System Overload: The Indian judicial system is often overwhelmed, leading to delays that compromise the quality of justice, as seen in the Nirbhaya case which took over seven years to conclude.

What are the Implications of Rising Rape Cases?

• Restrictions and Safety Concerns: Women face increased limitations on their movement due to safety concerns, further constraining their freedom and ability to engage in public life.
• Impact on Workplace Dynamics: Rising sexual offences can deter women from pursuing careers, affecting gender diversity in workplaces and complicating recruitment and retention of female employees.
• Economic Consequences: The need for medical and psychological support for survivors imposes additional healthcare costs, straining public resources and affecting economic stability.
• Erosion of Trust: High rates of rape can undermine public confidence in law enforcement and the justice system, fostering insecurity.
• Reinforcement of Gender Stereotypes: Increasing rape incidents can perpetuate harmful gender stereotypes, limiting women's opportunities and reinforcing inequality.

Way Forward

• Legal Reforms: Evidence suggests harsher penalties like the death penalty may not effectively prevent sexual violence. The focus should be on ensuring the certainty of punishment instead of severity, with over 30% conviction rates indicating the need for a more efficient judicial process.
• Changing Societal Attitudes: Education on consent and respectful behavior is essential, challenging rape jokes and victim-blaming attitudes while promoting empathy for survivors.
• Media Responsibility: Media outlets must be accountable for their portrayal of women and discourage content that objectifies them.
• Comprehensive Health/Sex Education: Schools should implement thorough sex education addressing consent, respect, and the harmful impacts of pornography.
• Support for Victims: Establishing a supportive environment for survivors, providing mental health resources and legal aid, is crucial for recovery and justice.

Conclusion

Rape is a severe crime that harms individuals and erodes societal values and safety. While India's legal framework aims to protect victims, significant challenges remain. To create a safer society, it is vital to enforce laws rigorously, educate the public, and transform societal attitudes towards sexual violence. Ensuring justice for survivors and holding perpetrators accountable is essential for establishing a fair and secure environment for all women.

Mains Question:

Q. In light of the surge in rape cases in India, evaluate the impact of legal reforms. Suggest strategies to tackle systemic issues and shift societal attitudes for better survivor support and conviction rates.