Weekly Current Affairs (8th to 14th August 2024) Part - 1 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

GS2/Polity

5th Anniversary of Abrogation of Article 370

Why in news?

• Recently, the fifth anniversary of the revocation of Article 370, which granted special status to Jammu and Kashmir, was observed. On August 2019, the Government of India revoked Article 370.

What was Article 370?

Article 370:

• Article 370 of the Indian constitution granted It was drafted by N Gopalaswami Ayyangar, a member of the Constituent Assembly of India and was added as a 'temporary provision' in 1949.
• This article allowed Jammu and Kashmir to have its constitution, flag, and autonomy over most matters except defence, foreign affairs, and communications.
• The provision was based on the terms of the Instrument of Accession, which was signed by the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, 1947 following an invasion by Pakistan.

Repeal of Article 370
Presidential Order:

• In the 2019 Presidential orders, Parliament redefined the "constituent assembly of Jammu and Kashmir" to mean the "Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir."
• By invoking the President's rule, Parliament then assumed the powers of the Legislative Assembly to revoke Article 370.

Resolutions in Parliament:

• On and 6 concurrent resolutions were passed by both houses of Parliament, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, respectively.
• These resolutions revoked the remaining provisions of Article 370 and replaced them with new provisions.

Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019:

• It was passed by Parliament in 2019 to bifurcate the state of Jammu and Kashmir into two Union Territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh.

Supreme Court Judgment on Article 370:

• In December 2023, unanimously ruled to uphold the Centre's abrogation of Article 370, validating the two Presidential Orders which extended the applicability of the Indian Constitution to Jammu and Kashmir and rendered Article 370 inoperative.

Why was There a Need to Abrogate Article 370?

Integration and Development:

• The revocation of Article 370 enabled better access to resources, infrastructure development, and economic opportunities, aiding the region's integration with the rest of India.

National Security:

• Improved control and stricter security measures by the Indian government enhanced national security and counter-terrorism efforts in the region.

Ending Discrimination:

• Equal rights and opportunities were ensured for women, Dalits, and other marginalised groups under Indian laws, promoting social justice.

Legal Uniformity:

• The abrogation aimed to eliminate legal confusion and disparities by applying uniform laws across India, ensuring equal rights for all citizens.

Demographic Changes:

• Encouraging outside investment was seen as a means to stabilise the region economically and socially, though concerns about demographic shifts and property rights were noted.

Political Stability:

• The move aimed to foster a stable political environment, re-establish democratic processes, and improve local governance.

What has been the Impact of the Abrogation of Article 370?

Uniformity in Laws

Changes in Domicile Laws:

• In April 2020, the Centre introduced the domicile clause for J&K, redefining residence and recruitment rules. This made any individual who has resided in J&K for 15 years or has studied for 7 years and appeared in class 10/12 examination in J&K, eligible for a domicile certificate, replacing the previously issued Permanent Resident Certificates.

Changes in Land Laws:

• The government amended 14 land laws in the former state of J&K, repealing 12 of them, including the Jammu and Kashmir Alienation of Land Act, 1938, and the Big Landed Estates Abolition Act, 1950, which had protected land holdings for permanent residents alienating the non-permanent residents.
• Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) government granted proprietary rights to West Pakistan Refugees (WPRs) and individuals displaced during the 1965 India-Pakistan war.
• Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) formerly called IPC) Comes into Force:
• Ranbir Penal Code replaced with the IPC (now BNS), and the prosecution wing was separated from the executive police in J&K.

Challenges After the Abrogation of Article 370
Political Instability and Governance Issues:

• Detention of over 500 political leaders and communication blackouts created a governance vacuum and increased local alienation.

Security Concerns and Militancy:

• Resurgence in militant activities led to more recruitment and heightened security challenges, resulting in increased encounters and civilian casualties.

Socio-Economic Disruption:

• Prolonged lockdowns caused economic contraction, especially in tourism, with over 80% decline in 2020, leading to higher unemployment and youth discontent.

Human Rights Violations:

• There has been observed a large number of cases of detentions, excessive force by security, and restricted freedom of expression, fueling local resentment.

Way Forward
Timeline and Elections:

• The Supreme Court suggests holding elections by September 2024. Key tasks include setting a clear timeline, overcoming logistical and security challenges, and ensuring fair elections.

Security and Human Rights:

• Ensure civilian safety, address security concerns, and investigate any human rights violations independently to foster peace.

Economic and Social Integration:

• Focus on economic development, job creation, and infrastructure improvements. Promote social cohesion and dialogue, such as through Operation Sadbhavana by the Indian Army, and address remaining grievances.
• Embrace Atal Bihari Vajpayee's vision of Kashmiriyat (Kashmir's inclusive culture), Insaniyat (humanitarianism), and Jamhooriyat (democracy) as the foundation for reconciliation efforts in the state.

Mains Question:

Evaluate the implications of the abrogation of Article 370 on Jammu and Kashmir's socio-political landscape. Discuss progress over the past five years, and identify the remaining challenges for lasting peace and integration.

GS1/History & Culture

82nd Anniversary of the Quit India Movement

Why in news?

• August Kranti Day, also known as the August Revolution Day, is annually observed in India. In 2024, India celebrates the anniversary of the Quit India Movement (QIM) that commemorates the historic launch in 1942 under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

What was the Quit India Movement (QIM)?

About:

• It was a pivotal moment in India's struggle for independence from British colonial rule, advocating for the immediate withdrawal of British forces from India. The movement aimed to mobilize Indians in a non-violent civil disobedience campaign against British colonialism.
• Internationally, it garnered sympathetic voices within the British public and pressure from Allied powers during World War II.

Reasons for Starting QIM

Failure of Cripps Mission (1942):

• Exposed Britain's unchanged attitude towards constitutional advance and offered dominion status instead of complete independence, which was deemed unacceptable.

Economic Impact of World War II:

• Popular discontent arose due to rising prices, shortages, and economic disparities, aggravated by mismanagement and profiteering.
• Hasty British Evacuation from Southeast Asia:
• Reports of British abandonment of Indian refugees fueled fears of a similar scenario in India.
• Feeling of Imminent British Collapse:
• News of Allied reverses and potential Japanese invasion instilled a sense of urgency among Indian leaders.

Quit India Resolution:

• The Congress Working Committee adopted the 'Quit India' Resolution on 14 July 1942 at Wardha, with the All India Congress Committee accepting it later in August 1942 at Gowalia Tank, Bombay.
• The resolution demanded an immediate end to British rule in India, commitment to self-defense, formation of a provisional government, and initiation of a civil disobedience movement.
• Gandhi's famous 'Do or Die' speech symbolized the resolve to achieve freedom.

How did the Government Respond to the Spread of QIM?

Spread of the Movement:

• Public unrest led to acts of civil disobedience, underground activities, and establishment of parallel governments in various regions.

British Government Response:

• The government resorted to arrests, censorship, and violent suppression tactics to quell the uprising, resulting in casualties and widespread crackdowns.

Was QIM a Spontaneous Outburst, or an Organized Movement?

Spontaneous Nature of QIM:

• The sudden eruption of the movement, despite the absence of top leadership, characterized it as a spontaneous and uncontrolled uprising.

Organized Nature of QIM:

• Preceding radical movements, pre-planned strategies, and past experiences in civil disobedience enriched the organized nature of the movement.

What were the Lessons and Significance of the QIM?

Lessons from QIM:

• The movement highlighted the role of Gandhi and Congress as symbols of liberation, discredited certain factions within Congress, and compelled the British to reconsider their governance strategies.

Significance of QIM:

• QIM set an immediate agenda for the national movement, emphasized constructive work post-movement, and paved the way for negotiations towards independence.

Conclusion

• The Quit India Movement (QIM) marked a crucial juncture in India's independence struggle, fostering mass support and intensifying the demand for freedom, ultimately hastening the end of British colonial rule.

Mains Question:

• How did the Quit India Movement (QIM) propel the Indian National Movement to a point of no return, making complete independence inevitable?

GS3/Social Issues

Gender Eligibility Row at Paris Olympics 2024

Why in News?

• The recent boxing match between Algeria's Imane Khelif and Italy's Angela Carini has sparked a significant controversy, particularly regarding gender and eligibility in women's sports.

Why did Imane Khelif's Win Spark a Controversy?

Background of the Controversy:

• Khelif's quick victory led to a wave of criticism, with many accusing her of being a "biological man (due to disorders of sex development)" despite official confirmation of her gender identity as female. Critics accused Khelif of having an "unfair advantage."

International Boxing Association's Stance:

• In 2023, Khelif and another boxer, Lin Yu-ting, were barred from competing in the International Boxing Association's (IBA) World Championship in New Delhi due to a "gender eligibility" test.
• The details of this test remain confidential. However, both athletes are competing at the Paris Olympics due to the IBA's derecognition by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 2023.
• The IOC's current eligibility criteria are based solely on the gender stated in an athlete's passport, which Khelif's identifies as female.

IOC's Response:

• The IOC defended its decision, stating that all boxers in the Olympics had met the competition's eligibility criteria.
• The IOC criticized the IBA's decision as "arbitrary" and expressed dismay at the abuse directed at Khelif and Lin Yu-ting, emphasizing that misleading information was being spread.

Why is Gender Eligibility a Contentious Issue in Women's Sports?

Sex and Athletic Performance:

• Traditionally, sports are divided based on sex due to physiological differences, with men typically having advantages in muscle mass, strength, and endurance.

SRY gene on the Y chromosome:

• The SRY gene on the Y chromosome plays a significant role in testosterone production, which has been linked to athletic advantages.

Disorders of Sex Development (DSDs):

• Some individuals with female reproductive organs may have XY chromosomes due to conditions like Swyer syndrome, complicating the discussion on gender eligibility.
• There is debate on whether such athletes should be excluded from women's sports to ensure fairness, given their potential for higher testosterone levels and related advantages.

What are Disorders of Sexual Development (DSDs)?

Definition:

• DSDs encompass a spectrum of conditions where individuals may have physical characteristics of both sexes or atypical development of sexual characteristics.

Examples:

• Individuals with XY chromosomes but genitals that appear female.
• XX chromosomes appear male.
• Both ovarian and testicular tissue.
• Typical sex organs but with an abnormal chromosomal arrangement that affects growth and development.

Types of DSDs

• Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS): A genetic condition where an individual with XY chromosomes is resistant to male hormones (androgens), resulting in the development of female physical traits despite having male genetic makeup.
• Klinefelter Syndrome: A chromosomal condition in males characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome (XXY), leading to symptoms such as reduced testosterone levels, infertility, and physical and developmental differences.
• Turner Syndrome: A chromosomal disorder in females caused by the complete or partial absence of one X chromosome, resulting in short stature, infertility, and various physical and developmental abnormalities.

How do Sports Federations Address Gender Eligibility?

IOC's Approach:

• Since 2021, the IOC has allowed international sports federations to develop their own eligibility rules based on an "evidence-based approach" that balances fairness, inclusion, and non-discrimination.

Specific Regulations by Federations:

• World Athletics, for example, still uses testosterone levels as a criterion for athletes with DSDs, requiring them to maintain levels below 2.5 nmol/L for at least 24 months.
• Other sports bodies have instituted varying bans on trans women athletes based on testosterone levels, though the need for such bans across sports has been questioned.

Open Category Debate:

• Some have proposed an "open category" for trans athletes to address these concerns.
• However, the practicality of such a category is debated due to the limited number of elite-level trans athletes and the challenges of establishing fair competition standards.

Way Forward

Biomarkers:

• Identify reliable biomarkers that can accurately assess athletic potential without infringing on athletes' privacy or dignity.
• Conduct longitudinal studies on the effects of puberty blockers, hormone therapy, and other interventions on athletic performance. Identify reliable biomarkers for assessing athletic potential.

Athlete Education:

• Provide athletes with accurate information about sex, gender, and eligibility rules to promote informed decision-making.

Transparent and Inclusive Policies:

• Sports federations should develop transparent and inclusive policies that balance fairness, inclusion, and non-discrimination. This includes clear guidelines on eligibility criteria and the rationale behind them.

Collaboration Among Federations:

• International sports federations should collaborate to harmonize their policies and ensure consistency across different sports. This can help prevent confusion and ensure fair competition.

Respect for Human Rights:

• Prioritize the protection of human rights, including the right to participate in sports, without discrimination.

Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the challenges and ethical considerations associated with gender eligibility in sports. How do these issues impact fairness and inclusivity?

GS3/Economy

RBI's 50th Monetary Policy Committee Meeting

Why in News?

• The Reserve Bank of India's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) meeting has brought notable updates on interest rates and economic policies. This meeting highlights eight years of the flexible inflation targeting (FIT) framework and introduces measures to manage and boost economic efficiency.

What are the Key Highlights of the 50th MPC Meeting?

Rate Decisions of the MPC:

• The MPC decided to keep the policy repo rate unchanged at 6.50%. This decision reflects the committee's current approach to managing supporting economic growth.
• Standing Deposit Facility (SDF) Rate remains at 6.25%, aligning with the unchanged repo rate.
• Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) Rate and Bank Rate both rates are set at 6.75%. These rates are used to manage liquidity and borrowing costs within the economy.
• The MPC's primary objective is to withdraw accommodation to gradually inflation with the target of 4.0%. Despite the strong economic growth, the committee emphasizes the need to control inflation to ensure price stability while supporting economic expansion.

Assessment of Growth
Global Economic Conditions:

• MPC stated that the global economy is showing steady but uneven growth. Manufacturing sectors are experiencing a slowdown, while service industries continue to perform well.
• Major economies are witnessing a gradual reduction in inflation rates, although services prices remain sticky.
• Different countries are adopting varied monetary policies, with some central banks cutting rates while others tighten their policies.

Challenges:

• Key global challenges include demographic shifts, climate change, geopolitical tensions, rising public debt, and advancements in technology such as artificial intelligence. These factors contribute to uncertainties in the medium-term global growth outlook.

Domestic Economic Conditions:

• MPC highlighted India’s economic activity remains resilient with a positive outlook driven by steady monsoon progress, higher kharif sowing, and improved reservoir levels.
• Manufacturing and services sectors are robust, with the Index of Industrial Production (IIP) showing accelerated growth.
• Household consumption is supported by rising rural demand and steady urban discretionary spending.

Inflation Trends and Implications:

• Headline Inflation increased to 5.1% in June 2024, largely due to higher food prices. Core inflation moderated, with fuel prices in deflation.
• Food prices have a significant impact on overall inflation, given their substantial weight (around 46%) in the Consumer Price Index (CPI) basket.

Future Outlook:

• While food inflation is expected to remain high in the short term, there may be some relief due to favourable base effects and improved monsoon conditions.

Financial Market Conditions:

• MPC noted that the global financial markets have experienced volatility due to concerns about economic slowdowns, geopolitical tensions, and changes in carry trade dynamics.
• Despite this, India’s financial markets are stable, supported by strong macroeconomic fundamentals.

Additional Measures Announced

Digital Lending Apps Repository:

• The RBI will establish a public repository of digital lending apps (DLAs) used by regulated entities (REs) like banks.
• This measure aims to help consumers identify unauthorised lending apps and ensure more transparency in the digital lending ecosystem.

UPI Transaction Limit:

• The transaction limit for tax payments through Unified Payments Interface (UPI) will be raised from Rs 1 lakh to Rs 5 lakh.
• This adjustment is designed to facilitate easier and more efficient tax payments for consumers.

Continuous Cheque Clearing:

• RBI has proposed continuous clearing of cheques with 'on-realisation-settlement' Cheque Truncation System, instead of the current clearing cycle of two working days to speed up payments and enhance efficiency.

Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the impact of the recent monetary policy decisions on India's financial stability and economic efficiency.

GS3/Environment

Transit-Oriented Urban Development

Why in news?

• The union government proposed a transit-oriented development (TOD) plan for 14 large cities with a population of over 30 lakh. Cities will be developed as "growth hubs" through economic and transit planning, and orderly development of peri-urban areas (areas immediately surrounding a city).

What is Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)?

About TOD:

• TOD is a planning strategy that aims to concentrate jobs, housing, and services around public transport stations.
• It encourages development that is easy to walk or bike through, with jobs, homes, and services located close to transit options.
• TOD works on the idea that economic growth, urban transport, and land use are more efficient when planned together.
• This approach has been successfully used in cities like Stockholm, Copenhagen, Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Singapore.

World Bank 3V Framework Guiding TOD Plans:

Node Value:

• It describes the importance of a station in the public transit network based on passenger traffic, connections with other transport modes, and centrality within the network.

Place Value:

• It reflects the quality and attractiveness of the area around the station.
• Key factors include diverse land use, access to essential services like schools and healthcare, the availability of amenities within walking or cycling distance, pedestrian-friendly design, and the size of urban blocks around the station.

Market Potential Value:

• It refers to the potential market value of areas around stations.
• This is assessed by considering factors like the number of current and future jobs nearby, the number of jobs accessible by transit within 30 minutes, housing density, available land for development, possible zoning changes, and overall market activity.

Benefits of TOD

Boosting Economic Competitiveness:

• TOD encourages higher densities and clusters jobs in smaller areas, leading to benefits like increased city competitiveness.
• Research shows that doubling job density can boost economic productivity by 5 to 10%.

Vibrant and Livable Communities:

• TOD brings jobs, housing, and amenities closer to transit stations, creating lively communities with great public spaces, shorter commutes, making cities more livable.

Mutual Reinforcement of Compact Urban Development and Public Transit:

• Compact urban development and good public transit work together.
• High-density areas bring more passengers, making transit systems profitable, while the concentration of jobs and housing near stations supports these.

Increasing Real Estate Value:

• Being close to mass transit makes TOD neighborhoods more attractive, increasing real estate values.
• Cities can use this extra value to fund transit upgrades, affordable housing, and sustainable growth.

Promoting Inclusivity:

• While TOD can increase property prices, this can be mitigated by including affordable housing in new developments.
• An inclusive TOD approach ensures access to jobs and services for people of all income levels.

Reducing Carbon Footprint:

• TOD reduces car use, shortens commutes, increases productivity, and lowers carbon emissions.
• For example, development along transit routes boosted economic value per person by 41% and cut greenhouse gas emissions per person by 35% from 1993 to 2010.

Supporting Disaster Resilience:

• When implemented in areas less prone to natural hazards, TOD can enhance disaster resilience by encouraging high-density development in safer zones, reducing exposure to risks.

Factors Driving Demand for TOD

Rapidly Growing Traffic Congestion:

• Nationwide traffic congestion is increasing rapidly and becoming overwhelming, prompting the need for more efficient urban planning.

Desire for a Quality Urban Lifestyle:

• More people are seeking a higher quality urban lifestyle that offers better amenities and experiences.

Components of TOD

Walkable Design:

• It prioritizes design with walking as the main focus.

Regional Node:

• A regional hub includes a mix of uses, such as office spaces, residential areas, retail, and civic facilities, all in close proximity.

What are the Challenges Associated with TOD?

Lack of Regional Coordination at the Metropolitan Level:

• India's metropolitan areas often have multiple municipal and state authorities with differing agendas, leading to fragmented TOD planning.

Higher Population Density:

• Inadequate regulations may result in either an overconcentration of development in certain areas or underutilization in others.

May not Suit Indian Cities:

• In island cities like Hong Kong and Singapore, TOD maximizes land use efficiency, allowing more people to live and work in proximity to transit, reducing the need for sprawling development. It may not be suitable for Indian cities like New Delhi or Bengaluru.

Conclusion

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) is a modern urban planning approach that integrates land use with transit infrastructure to foster high-density, mixed-use environments. It aims to reduce vehicle dependence, alleviate congestion, and enhance sustainability. Successful TOD relies on coordination, vertical development, and improved connectivity, with growing adoption in India.

Mains Question:

Q. Discuss how Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) can prove to be a game changer in the sustainable development of cities. What challenges come along with TOD for Indian cities?

GS3/Environment

NITI Aayog Report on Seaweed Value Chain Development

Why in news?

• Recently, NITI Aayog has outlined a detailed plan to boost seaweed farming in India in its report titled "Strategy for the development of Seaweed Value Chain". This strategy encompasses research, investment, training, infrastructure development, and marketing efforts to enhance seaweed production, offering advantages to the environment, economy, and local communities.

What are Seaweeds?

• Seaweeds are primitive marine algae without roots, stems, or leaves, playing a crucial role in marine ecosystems.
• They form dense underwater forests like kelp forests, providing habitats for various marine organisms.
• Notable species include Gelidiella acerosa, Gracilaria edulis, Gracilaria crassa, Gracilaria verrucosa, Sargassum spp, and Turbinaria spp.
• They are categorized into green (Chlorophyta), brown (Phaeophyta), and red (Rhodophyta) groups.

Production Scenario

• Global seaweed production totaled about 35.8 million tonnes in 2019, with a significant portion from cultivation.
• Eastern and Southeastern Asia lead in cultivation, while the Americas and Europe rely more on wild collections.
• India harvests around 33,345 tonnes annually, mainly in Tamil Nadu.

Import and Export

• In 2021, the global seaweed market reached USD 9.9 billion, with major trading countries including China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Korea, and Malaysia.
• Korea is a significant player in exports and hydrocolloids derived from seaweed.

Major Seaweed Beds in India

• Abundant seaweed resources are found along the coasts of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
• Notable beds are located in Mumbai, Ratnagiri, Goa, Karwar, Varkala, Vizhinjam, Pulicat, Andhra Pradesh, and Chilka in Orissa.

Related Government Initiatives

• Seaweed Mission launched in 2021 aims to promote seaweed farming.
• Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana supports seaweed cultivation.
• ICAR-CMFRI has commercialized seaweed-based nutraceutical products.
• Multi-Purpose Seaweed Park established in Tamil Nadu.

Uses and Benefits of Seaweeds

• Seaweeds offer nutritional benefits and contain essential vitamins and minerals.
• They have medicinal properties and are used in various industries like cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
• Commercially, they are valued for their bioactive metabolites and agricultural benefits.
• Seaweeds also contribute to environmental sustainability by absorbing excess nutrients and reducing carbon footprints.

NITI Aayog's Recommendations

• Proposals include amendments in existing rules, export facilitation, financial support, and skill development initiatives.
• Emphasis is placed on enhancing investments, promoting ease of doing business, and establishing necessary infrastructure for seaweed cultivation.

Mains Question:

• The question focuses on seaweeds, their uses, and government initiatives to promote cultivation in India.

GS3/Environment

Underwater Structures in the Indian Ocean

Why in news?

• Recently, three underwater structures were named as Ashoka, Chandragupt, and Kalpataru, which reflect India's growing influence in marine science and its commitment to exploring and understanding the Indian Ocean. This naming was proposed by India and approved by the International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO) and UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC).

What are the Key Facts About the Underwater Structures?

Background and Significance:

• The discoveries of these underwater structures are part of the Indian Southern Ocean Research Programme, initiated in 2004, with the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) as the nodal agency. The program aims to study various aspects including bio-geochemistry, biodiversity, and hydrodynamics.

Total Structures:

• Seven structures, including the recently added ones in the Indian Ocean, are now named primarily after Indian scientists or based on names proposed by India.

Previously Named Structures:

• Raman Ridge (accepted in 1992): It was discovered in 1951 by a US oil vessel. It was named after Physicist and Nobel Laureate Sir CV Raman.
• Panikkar Seamount (accepted in 1993): It was discovered in 1992 by India research vessel Sagar Kanya. It is named after NK Panikkar, a renowned oceanographer.
• Sagar Kanya Seamount (accepted in 1991): For its successful 22nd cruise in 1986 leading to its discovery, a seamount was named after the research vessel Sagar Kanya itself.
• DN Wadia Guyot: It was named after geologist DN Wadia in 1993 when an underwater volcanic mountain (guyot) was discovered in 1992 by Sagar Kanya.

Recently Named Structures

• Ashoka Seamount: It was discovered in 2012. It is in an oval-shaped structure spanning approximately 180 sq km and was identified using the Russian vessel Akademik Nikolay Strakhov.
• Kalpataru Ridge: It was discovered in 2012. This elongated ridge covers an area of 430 sq km and may play a critical role in supporting marine biodiversity. Experts believe that this ridge could have provided essential support for marine life by offering habitat shelter and food sources for various species.
• Chandragupt Ridge: This ridge is an elongated structure covering 675 sq km. It was identified in 2020 by the Indian research vessel MGS Sagar.

What are the Different Underwater Structures/Relief on the Ocean Floor?

About:

Ocean Floor or Seabed is the bottom of the water that covers more than 70% of the Earth’s surface and it includes elements like Phosphorus, Gold, Silver, Copper, Zinc, and Nickel. The primary causes of Ocean Relief are interactions between tectonic plates, and erosional, depositional, and volcanic processes.

Zones of Ocean Floor:

• Continental Shelf: shallowest and widest part of the ocean floor. Extends from the coast to the edge of the continent, where it drops sharply into the continental slope. Rich in marine life and resources, such as fish, oil, and gas.
• Continental Slope: The steep slope that connects the continental shelf to the abyssal plain. Cut by deep canyons and valleys that are formed by underwater landslides and rivers of sediment. Home to some deep-sea creatures, such as octopuses, squids, and anglerfish.
• Continental Rise: Made up of thick sequences of continental material that accumulate between the continental slope and the abyssal plain. It can rise from processes such as the downhill movement of sediment, the settling of particles carried by underwater currents, and the slow settling of both non-living and living particles from above.
• Abyssal Plain: flattest. Covers most of the ocean basin and lies between 4,000 and 6,000 meters below sea level. Covered by a thick layer of fine sediments that are carried by ocean currents and settle on the seafloor. Inhabited by some of the most bizarre and mysterious animals on Earth, such as giant tube worms, bioluminescent fish, and vampire squids.
• Oceanic Deeps or Trenches: These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans. The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins. They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor. They occur at the bases of continental slopes and along island arcs and are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes, so are very significant in the study of plate movements.

Minor Relief Features of Ocean Floor:

• Submarine Canyons: They are significant geological structures found on continental margins, serving as connections between the upper continental shelf. They are deep, narrow valleys featuring vertical sidewalls and steep slopes, similar to land valleys.
• Mid Oceanic Ridges: They are found along diverging plate boundaries where tectonic plates move apart, and the gap is filled by upwelling magma that solidifies to form new oceanic crust. These ridges consist of two parallel mountain ranges separated by a deep depression. The mountain peaks can reach heights of up to 2,500 meters.
• Seamounts and Guyots: Seamounts are undersea mountains formed by volcanic activity that rise hundreds or thousands of feet from the sea floor, often near plate boundaries. Example the Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in Pacific Ocean flat-topped seamounts that have been submerged as the seafloor gradually sinks away from oceanic ridges.
• Atoll: It is a ring-shaped formation of coral reefs or islands that encircles a lagoon, typically developing seamounts. These structures consist of low islands in tropical oceans, with the reef surrounding a central depression that can contain various types of water, including seawater, fresh water, or brackish water.

Mains Question:

Q. What are the different types of oceanic relief features found on the ocean floor?