Women in Indian Politics (1885-1947) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Rise of the Women’s Movement in the 20th Century

• The women’s movement of the 20th century was a significant feature of the era, with various streams and differing ideologies.
• Early concerns raised by the movement included women’s education, religious customs, social beliefs, and superstitions.
• Social issues such as child marriage, sati, devadasi system, purdah, dowry, polyandry, polygamy, and female infanticide were addressed by women entering social movements.
• Pioneers like Savithri Bai Phule, Renuka Rai, Sucheta Kripalini, Rama Bai, and Sarojini Naidu led these movements, with participants enjoying some privileges of class, caste, and religion.
• The quest for improved education for women was a key aspect, with upper-caste and middle/high-class women benefiting and leading the movement in the 19th century.
• In the early 20th century, these women led social reform campaigns, believing that the education acquired would be the foundation for future social changes.
• Education empowered women, making them articulate and confident.
• Women like Savithri Bai Phule, Pandita Rama Bai, Begum Rukiya Sakhavat, and others established schools for girls, while others started publications to highlight women’s issues.
• Participation in the freedom movement also influenced the movement for women’s rights, legitimizing their role in the governance of India.
• Saraladevi Chaudhurani emphasized the importance of agitation and propaganda among women to attain rights.
• Women earned respect for their political work, leading to social benefits and cooperation with men as colleagues.
• The legal structure for family law was reviewed and modified as a result of these efforts.

Issue of Suffrage and Council Entry

• In 1917, a delegation of women, including Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu, and Margaret Cousins, approached Montague in Delhi, demanding voting rights for women.
• Women's representatives in Calcutta also requested a role in the nationalist movement in 1917. These associations, led by upper-caste women, primarily engaged in "petition politics", focusing on needs like voting rights and legal rights for women, while largely ignoring the issues faced by lower-class and lower-caste women.
• Sarojini Naidu brought up the issue of women's suffrage in August 1918 during a special session of the Indian National Congress (INC) in Bombay.
• Sarladevi Choudhurani presented a resolution on women's suffrage at the INC regular session in December 1918 in Delhi.
• The Southborough Franchise Committee, tasked with considering franchise matters before the 1919 Act, visited India in 1918 to gather information. Two committee members supported extending franchise to Indian women, including C. Sankaran Nair, a member of the Viceroy's Executive Council.
• Although the 1919 Act did not grant women's suffrage, it allowed provincial legislative councils to add women to the list of registered voters.
• Bombay and Madras were the first provinces to extend the franchise to women in 1921, followed by Uttar Pradesh in 1923, and other provinces like Punjab, Bengal, Assam, Central Provinces, Bihar, and Orissa by 1930.
• Eventually, all provinces granted women the right to be elected to the legislatures. Muthulakshmi Reddy became the first women legislator appointed to the Madras Legislative Council in 1927.
• Begum Jahan Ara Shah Nawaj and Radhabai Subbarayan were appointed as women representatives by the British Government for the Round Table Conference (RTC) in 1930 and RTC II in 1931, respectively. Sarojini Naidu represented Indian women's organizations in RTC II in 1931.
• Lothian Committee During the RTC, the second Franchise Committee, led by Lothian and including two women members, recommended increasing the voting ratio from 1:20 to 1:5. The 1933 white paper suggested a ratio of 1:10, but the Act of 1935 fixed it at 1:5 and introduced special electorates for women.

Appointments after the 1937 elections:

• Vijayalakshmi Pandit: Minister in Uttar Pradesh
• Anasuyabai Kale: Deputy Speaker in Central Provinces
• Sippi Milani: Deputy Speaker in Sind
• Qudsia Aizaz Rasul: Deputy Speaker of Uttar Pradesh
• Begum Shah Nawaj: Parliamentary Secretary in Punjab
• Hansa Mehta: Parliamentary Secretary of Bombay

Congress and Women

• Participation in early Congress Sessions
• Due to the efforts of Dwarkanath Ganguly, six women delegates attended the 1889 Congress session in Bombay. This included social reformer Pandita Ramabai, Rabindranath Tagore’s sister Swarnakumari Devi, and Calcutta University’s first lady graduate Kadambini Ganguly.
• The two women from Bengal,Kadambini and Swarnakumari Debi, were there largely because of their husbands' involvement in Congress politics.
• Orthodox opinion criticized even this limited participation. They mocked Dwarkanath for advocating women's representation in Congress and their right to be elected members of the Legislative Council.
• In the 1890 Calcutta Session, Kadambini Ganguly addressed the Congress. Her contributions were more symbolic than substantial; in Calcutta, she made a motion to thank the Chairman.
• From 1890 onwards, women began attending every Indian National Congress (INC) meeting, often as delegates but more frequently as observers.
• Women’s issues were not part of the nationalist discourse in the early twentieth century because other forms of emancipation were seen as dependent on national liberation.
• Until 1917, the Congress did not directly address the women’s issue, just as it avoided the untouchability issue, due to its uncertainty and sensitivity about the nascent nation.
• As extremism grew in Bengal, nationalists there adopted the concept of “motherhood” as a powerful symbol of indigenous cultural distinctiveness.
• The idea of the country as “motherland,” contrasting with the European concept of fatherland, was popularized by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in his song Bande Mataram, later included in his novel Anandamath.
• The song was first sung by Rabindranath Tagore at the Calcutta session of Congress in 1896.
• During the Swadeshi movement, leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh recognized the power of the mother imagery to inspire patriotism and national awakening.
• From the 1920s onwards, women became actively involved in the nationalist movement for independence.
• Male leaders in the movement sought to establish connections with peasants, workers, and women’s associations to gain mass support.
• The participation of women strengthened the Indian National Congress and legitimized Indian unity and satyagraha. Satyagrahi techniques aimed to reclaim moral authority from the British Raj and restore it to the non-violent subjects.
• Even the British recognized the special appeal of these methods for women. One official noted that without women, the movement would not have gained its momentum.
• There were regional differences in the number of women joining the movement and their relationship with Congress leaders.Bombay women were the most organized, independent, and led the largest demonstrations. Many leaders were part of women’s organizations and articulated a feminist nationalism.
• In Bengal, women gained attention for their militancy, marching alongside men in Congress parades and joining revolutionary parties. Their peaceful demonstrations were fewer but significant in a society where purdah was common.
• In Madras, fewer women joined the movement because leaders did not utilize women’s talents.
• In North India, families like Nehru and Zutshi provided strong women leaders, prioritizing the nationalist agenda.
• Early nationalists recognized the importance of feminist issues but focused on mobilizing women for political demonstrations, believing it was not feasible to raise awareness about both politics and women’s rights simultaneously.
• The INC established a women’s sub-committee in 1939 to propose ideas regarding women’s roles in a planned economy, chaired by Rani Rajwade.
• In 1940, the INC set up a Women’s Department, with Sucheta Mazumdar Kripalani chosen to organize it.

Women's Role During Early Nationalism

• Mother-Goddess Imagery: In the early nationalist depiction of the mother-goddess, the image of a nurturing Bengali mother was combined with shakti, or primal power, represented by Hindu Goddesses Durga or Kali, who fought demons and protected the innocent.
• Over time, the aggressive aspect of this imagery was softened, portraying the mother as the embodiment of Indian spiritualism.
• Abanindranath Tagore’s Painting: In nationalist art, Abanindranath Tagore’s painting of Bharat Mata (c. 1904-5) became a symbol of this new image, depicting the mother-goddess as serene and genteel, offering protection and prosperity, embodying both human and divine qualities.
• Impact on Women’s Status: Jasodhara Bagchi argued that this ideology of motherhood, by creating a myth of women’s strength and power, confined them to reproductive roles and deprived them of access to education and occupations, hindering their real empowerment.
• Swadeshi Movement: Women’s participation in the National Movement, starting from the Swadeshi Movement, was largely within the accepted gender ideology that confined their activities to the home.
• Women boycotted British goods, embraced swadeshi, crushed glass bangles, and observed non-cooking days as forms of protest.
• Interestingly, the powerful imagery used to mobilize women’s support in Bengal during this time was Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity, who was said to have left her abode due to the partition and needed to be brought back, protected, and looked after.
• There were notable exceptions, such as Sarala Debi Chaudhurani, who engaged in a physical culture movement for Bengali youth, and a few women who participated in revolutionary activities.

Revolutionary Women in the Freedom Struggle:

• Most women leaders struggled to expand their recruitment beyond their own circles of respectability. However, women who joined the revolutionary movement were a notable exception.
• These revolutionary women worked closely with men, often in disguise. They traveled alone or with strangers and learned skills like shooting, driving, and bomb-making.
• Many of these women described their involvement as a sacrifice of personal desires such as marriage, children, and a home for the sake of their country.
• While their contributions were significant, they were mostly supportive or indirect, such as providing shelter to fugitive revolutionaries or acting as couriers for messages and weapons.
• This mode of participation did not drastically challenge the accepted norms of feminine behavior or signify empowerment.
• No one, including the revolutionary women themselves, considered these actions as representative of Indian womanhood.

Women’s Role in the Revolutionary Movement:

• Bina Das: Attempted to assassinate Governor Jackson in Bengal.
• Pritilata Waddekar and Kalpana Datta: Involved in Surya Sen’s raids.
• Dr. Lakshmi Swaminathan: Led the women’s wing of the Indian National Army (INA) and commanded the Rani of Jhansi Regiment.
• Janaki Davar: Another key figure in the INA movement.
• Latika Ghosh: Organized daring programs with girls in higher education and employed women.
• Urmila Devi, Jyotimayi Ganguly, Santhi Das, and Prothibha Devi: Led the Nari Satyagraha Samithi, a militant women’s group willing to face arrest.
• Kalyani, Surma Mithra, and Kamala Das Gupta: Prominent leaders in the association of girl students.
• Many women faced brutal torture at the hands of the police.
• By 1933, nearly all revolutionary women were imprisoned.

Rise of Women in Indian Politics Post World War One

Annie Besant:

• President of the Theosophical Society.
• Launched the Home Rule Movement in 1916.
• Published journals Common Weal and New India.
• Presided over the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1917.

Sarojini Naidu:

• An England-educated poet, she gave patriotic speeches at Congress sessions since 1906.
• Instrumental in founding the Rashtriya Stri Sangh, focusing on Swaraj and women’s emancipation.
• Led a delegation to London in 1917 to advocate for female franchise.
• Proposed a resolution in 1918 for equal voting rights for men and women at the Congress session.
• Served as president of the Congress in 1925.
• Despite their inspirational roles, Besant and Naidu struggled to develop a clear ideology for women’s emancipation or secure a distinct place for women in nationalist politics.

Gandhi and Women

Gandhiji's Impact on Women in the Nationalist Movement:

• Gandhi marked a significant shift in the story of women's involvement in the nationalist movement.
• He played a crucial role in integrating women into the national movement during the 1920s and 1930s.
• Gandhi's vision of the ideal Indian woman shifted the focus from motherhood to sisterhood, downplaying women's sexuality.
• In South Africa, he recognized the power of selfless sacrifice that women could offer and aimed to harness it for the nation.
• Gandhi's call to women was framed in religious metaphors, aligning with traditional values of femininity.
• He used Sita, Damayanti, and Draupadi from Indian mythology as role models, reinterpreting them as virtuous women capable of great sacrifices for family, society, and the state.
• He drew parallels between British rule and the abduction of Sita in the Ramayana, urging women to join the nationalist struggle.
• When addressing Muslim women, Gandhi avoided mythological references, focusing on sacrifice for country and Islam, and branding British rule as "Rule of Satan."
• He believed in a "natural division of labor" between the sexes, encouraging women to manage the home while participating in the nationalist struggle through spinning, picketing, and motivating men.
• Gandhi viewed men and women as equal but with different roles, aligning with the Indian middle-class tradition of womanhood.
• He acknowledged women's biological weaknesses but reframed them as strengths, defining political participation as an extension of domestic roles.
• Gandhi's approach was a reformulation of social ideas in moral terms, creating space for politics within the home.

Participation in movements

Gandhi's Involvement of Women in Indian Nationalist Movement:

• In 1913, while in South Africa, Gandhi first involved women in public demonstrations, recognizing their significant political potential.
• Back in India, during the Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919, he invited women to join the nationalist campaign, but this was withdrawn before any substantial progress could be made.
• Under Gandhi’s leadership, women became increasingly prominent in the Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, and Quit India movements.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1921):

• Gandhi initially limited women’s roles to boycott and swadeshi, but women sought a more active role.
• In November 1921, a demonstration of a thousand women greeted the Prince of Wales in Bombay.
• In December, Basanti Devi and her family made headlines by participating in a public demonstration in Calcutta and courting arrest.
• Despite concerns for their physical safety and chastity, Gandhi supported their actions for their demonstration impact.
• Women from various backgrounds, including marginalized groups, participated, although Gandhi was hesitant to involve them.
• Notable figures such as Sarojini Naidu, Bi Amma, Saraladevi Choudhurani, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, and others played significant roles.
• Women became associated with the specific program of dharna on liquor shops.

Civil Disobedience Movement:

• The movement saw a significant increase in women’s participation.
• Gandhi initially did not include women in his core group for the Dandi march.
• However, he addressed large meetings of women, and as the movement progressed, thousands participated in activities such as illegal salt production, picketing foreign cloth and liquor shops, and processions.
• Participation was strongest in Bombay, most militant in Bengal, and more limited in Madras.
• In North India, cities like Allahabad, Lucknow, Delhi, and Lahore, women from respectable families participated in nationalist demonstrations, shocking conservative norms.
• Women were involved in picketing liquor shops and demonstrations throughout the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Sarojini Naidu organized the Dharsana Satyagraha, and other women like Kamladavi Chattopadhyay and Krishnabai Rau also played important roles.
• Usha Mehta joined the Vanar Sena(Monkey Army) during the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Some women in Bengal became involved in violent revolutionary activities, taking on active roles unlike during the Swadeshi period.

Rani Gaidinliu:

• Inspired by Gandhiji, Rani Gaidinliu started a movement against British rule at the young age of 16 in the  Manipur and Naga regions.
• In 1932, Gaidinliu was arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment by the British authorities.
• In 1937, Jawaharlal Nehru met her in Shillong Jail and promised to help secure her release, giving her the title "Rani." She was eventually released in 1947 after India gained independence.

Individual Satyagrah:

• Aruna Asaf Ali participated in Individual Satyagraha in 1941 and was arrested.
• Sucheta Kriplani was involved in Individual Satyagraha in 1940 and faced a two-year imprisonment.
• Sucheta Kriplani became a member of the Constituent Assembly and joined Gandhiji in 1947 to address communal violence in Bengal.

Quit India Movement:

• During the Quit India Movement, Sucheta Kripalani coordinated non-violent resistance, while Aruna Asaf Ali led underground revolutionary activities, even declining Gandhi's advice to surrender.
• Usha Mehta played a significant role in the underground movement by organizing Congress Radio, named Voice of India, until November 1942.
• Matangini Hazra, a 73-year-old widow, displayed remarkable courage at Tamluk during the Quit India Movement.
• Bhogeswari Phukanani was a women martyr from Assam during the Quit India Movement.
• Kanak Lata Barua from Assam was shot for hoisting the national flag during the Quit India Movement.
• The movement saw widespread participation of rural women taking initiative to liberate the country.
• The engagement of rural women increased with the lifting of the ban on the Communist Party in 1942.
• In the 1920s and 1930s, many middle-class educated women joined the communist movement, mobilizing the working classes and organizing industrial actions.
• By 1941, the girls’ wing of the All-India Students Federation had around 50,000 members.
• A.V. Kutimalu Amma, Akkamma Cheriyan, Mettilda Kallan, Kamalam, Annie Mascreen, Karthyayani Amma, and Kochukutty Amma were notable women leaders in the struggle across Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar regions of Kerala.

Analysis of Their Role in the Nationalist Struggle:

• The trend of women's active participation in the public sphere began in the 1930s and continued into the 1940s.
• Women responded to Gandhi's call, viewing their service to the nation as a religious duty.
• Gandhi's focus on non-violence and the respectable image of women satyagrahis aligned with traditional feminine norms.
• Resistance was minimal as women participated primarily at the behest of their male guardians.
• Many women in the nationalist movement came from families already involved in Gandhian activities.
• Their politicization did not significantly alter their domestic or familial relationships.
• Most women participants were from respectable Hindu middle-class families, with urban participation being predominant.
• Rural women's involvement was limited, and marginalized groups were excluded due to the emphasis on a respectable image.
• Muslim women participated in the Khilafat-Non Cooperation movement in 1921, but purdah was not fully abolished.
• Women engaging in violent revolutionary actions faced societal censure, reflecting traditionalist moorings.
• The Congress showed little interest in women's issues, treating them as a symbolic presence.
• Sarala Debi Chaudhurani expressed frustration at the Congress seeing women as \"law-breakers only and not law-makers.\"
• Despite limitations, hundreds of women from respectable families marching marked a shift in social attitudes.
• Sujata Patel noted the interdependence of women's participation and Gandhi's advocacy.
• Women subtly pushed the boundaries of their autonomy by manipulating cultural metaphors.
• Bi Amman, after a lifetime of purdah, lifted her veil at a mass meeting, incorporating the nation into her family.
• Many women likely did not secure their guardians' permission before participating in the Civil Disobedience movement.
• Women's participation had drawbacks, with groups predominantly representing upper and middle-class Hindu women.
• While some Muslim women supported Gandhi, many found it hard to accept his Hindu ideological basis.
• City-based demonstrations did little to foster feminist consciousness, often following directives from Congress Committees.
• Male guardianship persisted, although the freedom movement was not characterized by patriarchal nationalism.

 Did the activism and politicization of women promote a feminist consciousness in colonial India?

• For the wider society, the answer is no.
• However, for women actively involved in the nationalist struggle and for more enlightened middle-class women leaders, life could never be the same again.
• The emergence of women’s literature during this period suggests a blurring of the private/public divide in their consciousness.
• These women were increasingly resentful of existing gender disparities in society.
• Despite contesting and transgressing 'desirable' codes, middle-class and high-caste women broadly consented to the hegemonic aspirations of nationalist patriarchy.
• Among Muslim women, there was a rise in feminist Urdu literature in the early twentieth century, challenging traditional boundaries and ideologies of gender relations.
• However, this literature refrained from advocating for dramatic change and prioritized the image of the Muslim community.
• These contradictions were more evident in the growing number of women’s organizations of the time.
• Women’s participation in politics initially took place through various women-only organizations, constituting an “extended female space” between the segregated family household and the broader public arena.
• These organizations included local social groups, girls’ educational institutions, and political bodies like the Rashtriya Stree Sangha, founded by Sarojini Naidu as an auxiliary body of the Congress.
• In the early twentieth century, several women’s organizations emerged, operating more actively in the public sphere and focusing on women’s political and legal rights.
• Latika Ghosh established the Mahila Rashtriya Sangh in 1928 with the support of S.C. Bose.
• This organization was radical in its approach and programs.

Women's Organisations and Institutions

Bharat Mahila Parishad (1904):

• Women' wing of Indian National Social Conference (Started by M.G. Ranade).
• Organised Women's Conference in 1909.
• Organised another Women's Conference in 1910 in Allahabad whose secretary was Saraladevi Choudhurani.
• Saraladevi Choudhurani founded Bharat Stri Mahamandal in 1909 in Allahabad.
• All India Muslim Ladies Conference founded in 1914.
• Lady Hardinge Medical College was founded in 1916.
• There were three other associations that were started between 1917 and 1927:
• Women's Indian Association, National Council of Women in India and All-India Women's conference.

Women's Indian Association:

• At the all-India level, the first Women organisation to appear in Madras in 1917 was the Women's Indian Association, started by enlightened European and Indian ladies, the most important of them being Margaret Cousins, an Irish feminist, and Annie Besant.
• Margaret Cousins, Annie Besant, Malathi Patwardha, Ammu Swaminathan and Ambujammal were the leaders who helped the growth of the Women's Indian Association in Tamil Nadu.
• The Stri Dharma was the journal published by the WIA to voice its ideals and beliefs. It addressed political and social issues facing women in India as well as the achievements of women worldwide.
• Religion, politics, education and Philanthropy were the areas they focused on.
• There was also a national chapter of the International Women's Council, administered by Mehribai Tata, Dowager Begum Saheb of Bhopal, the Maharani of Baroda, the Princess Sethu Parvathi Bai of Travancore and Maniben Kara.

National Council of Indian Women (1925):

• In 1925 the National Council of Women in India was formed as a branch of the International Council of Women, and Lady Mehribai Tata remained its main spirit during the early years.

All India Women's Conference founded at Poona in 1926-27:

• In 1927 the most important of these organisations,the All India Women's Conference came into existence, initially as a non-political body to promote women's education, with Margaret Cousins as the main inspirational figure.
• Eventually however, it got involved in nationalist politics and lobbied for all sorts of women's rights, from franchise to marriage marriage reform (the Sarada Act) and the rights of women labourers and also rural reconstruction, indigenous industries, opium abuse.
• In 1941 an office with permanent staff was established.
• Journal- Roshni,
• It was the most Important during Pre-1947 Era.
• At the provincial level too, various organisations started functioning around this time for a multitude of women's issues.
• Sarala Devi Chaudhurani's Bharat Stree Mahamandal, which had its first meeting in Allahabad in 1910, opened branches all over India to promote women's education.
• Bangiya Nari Samaj started campaigning for women's voting rights.
• Bengal Women's Education League demanded compulsory elementary and secondary education for women.
• All-Bengal Women's Union campaigned for a legislation against illicit trafficking of women.
• However, instead of mobilising mass agitations in support of these issues, these women's organisations petitioned the government and appealed to the nationalists for support.
• The government intervened reluctantly, if at all, and often preferred compromise formulae, as it believed that the majority of Indian women were not yet ready to use their rights properly.
• For example, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reform in 1919 left undecided the question of women's franchise which was to be determined later by the provincial legislatures.
• The nationalists, on the other hand, seemed more sympathetic to the women's question since 1920, as they needed their participation in the nation-building project.
• Women too privileged this “process of universalization” by placing nationalism before women's issues.
• As a reward, all the provincial legislatures between 1921 and 1930 granted voting right to women, subject of course to usual property and educational qualifications.
• The Government of India Act of 1935 increased the ratio of female voters to 1:5 and gave women reserved seats in legislature.
• The Congress and the women's organisations did not like the idea of reservation and had preferred instead universal adult franchise.
• However, once provided they accepted it and this helped a number of women to launch their legislative careers after the election of 1937.

Reform Acts Passed:

• Unlike the Age of Consent bill of 1891, the Child Marriage Restraint Act, also known as the Sarda Act of 1929, aimed to set the minimum age of marriage at fourteen for females and eighteen for males. It received strong support from nationalists.
• During the 1930s, various bills were passed in the central and provincial legislatures to address women’s rights regarding property, inheritance, divorce, dowry, and prostitution.

Impact of Legislation on Gender Relations and Women's Quality of Life:

• The implementation of the Sarda Act faced challenges, leading to its ineffectiveness over time.
• Despite the efforts of women’s organizations and activists, progress was limited by a social feminist ideology that acknowledged public roles for women while recognizing differences between the sexes.
• In the 1940s, this dominant ideology was challenged as women from various backgrounds began to assert a more active role in the public sphere, joining men in the struggle for independence.

Women in the Early 20th Century:

• The early 20th century saw the emergence of a new consciousness, the formation of new organizations, and the politicization of women, leading to significant changes for some women.
• Middle-class urban women carved out a niche in the public space, entering prestigious professions such as medicine and law, earning high salaries, and gaining social respect.
• These women managed to balance their public roles with the demands of housewifery and childcare, often without vocal protest.

Female Activism in the Quit India Movement:

• During the Quit India movement of 1942, when most male Congress leaders were imprisoned, prominent women leaders stepped up to coordinate the movement amidst severe police repression.
• In 1942, leftist women leaders in Bengal formed the Mahila Atmaraksha Samiti(Women’s Self-Defence League) to mobilize rural women and organize relief work during the Bengal famine of 1943.
• The involvement of women in the communist movement escalated with the Tebhaga movement in 1946, led by communist kisan sabhas, demanding a two-thirds share of the produce for sharecroppers.
• Women from dalit and tribal communities actively participated by forming Nari Bahinis(women’s brigades), resisting colonial police with whatever weapons they could find.
• Many of these women became martyrs in the struggle, highlighting their significant role in the movement.

Telangana Movement (1946-1951):

• In Andhra, during the Telangana movement against the Nizam of Hyderabad and feudal oppression, women actively participated alongside men, fighting for better wages, fair rent, and dignity.
• The Communist Party made efforts to mobilize women by highlighting gender-specific issues, recognizing their crucial role in sustaining the movement.
• Many women joined the movement independently, acting as couriers of secret messages, arranging shelter, and some even taking up arms to become part of dalams(revolutionary units).
• Despite the new opportunities for militant action, women were not treated as equals by the communist leaders.
• The party leadership, similar to their counterparts in Bengal, preferred women in supportive roles and distrusted them with guns on the battlefield.
• Women were often viewed as sources of problems regarding sexual morality and discipline within the rebel ranks.

Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA Women's Regiment:

• In 1928, Subhas Chandra Bose helped establish a women's volunteer corps under "Colonel" Latika Ghosh, which marched in Calcutta.
• In 1943, Bose formed the Indian National Army (INA) and included a women’s regiment called the Rani of Jhansi Regiment.
• The training camp for this regiment opened in October 1943, attracting about 1,500 women from various backgrounds in Southeast Asia.
• The women received full military training and were initially assigned non-combat roles, which they protested against.
• They eventually participated in combat during the Imphal campaign of 1945.
• The campaign ended poorly for the INA, leading to their retreat against the British army.
• Bose’s inclusion of women in combat reflected a shift from the traditional view of women to the heroic activism of figures like the Rani of Jhansi.

Muslim Women and the Pakistan Movement (1940s):

• The emergence of the ‘Pakistan’ movement in the 1940s created a new space for political action among Muslim women in the subcontinent.
• In the 1930s, Muslim women had participated alongside Hindu women in a united front to advocate for women’s rights, including female suffrage.
• However, a division occurred in 1935 over the issue of reservation of women’s seats on a communal basis.
• Some Muslim leaders, like Begam Shah Nawaz of the All India Women’s Conference, refused to accept joint electorates when their male counterparts were not prepared to do so.
• The Muslim League also aimed to broaden its political base and established a women’s sub-committee in 1938 to involve Muslim women.
• As the Pakistan movement gained momentum, more Muslim women became involved as election candidates, voters, and active demonstrators, particularly in Punjab and the North-West Frontier Province.
• For many ordinary women, this political participation was a “liberating experience”, signifying an acceptance of a public role for women in Muslim society.
• Despite the short-lived nature of this moment of emancipation, it represented a shift in societal norms.
• In the 1940s, Indian women across class, caste, and religious barriers claimed agency in their participation in anti-imperialist and democratic movements.
• However, they often subordinated their own goals to those of national liberation, community honour, or class struggle.
• The concept of feminism was viewed with confusion, either seen as a Western import or as a digression from the freedom struggle.
• Some nationalists, like Jawaharlal Nehru, believed that the women’s question would resolve itself automatically after achieving political freedom.
• Patriarchal concerns remained a dilemma for the communist leadership as well.
• In the Tebhaga movement, women’s leadership could only emerge when the Communist Party leadership abstained.
• Trade unions, while mobilizing working-class women, often ignored women’s issues, subsuming them within male or general working-class interests.
• Despite the involvement of some Muslim women in public action during the Pakistan movement, the partition experience reinforced the traditional ashraf ideal of Muslim womanhood, confining women within the domestic sphere.
• Partition violence marked a grim period for subcontinental women, both Hindu and Muslim, as they became objects of male construction of community honour.
• Women’s sexuality became a territory to be either conquered or destroyed to deny the enemy the glory of conquering it.
• They were caught in a “continuum of violence”, facing choices of rape, mutilation, and humiliation by men of the ‘Other’ community or suicide to preserve community honour.
• Throughout colonial India, the women’s issue lacked the priority it deserved.
• While some women became aware and actively engaged in political struggles, feminism had not yet been integrated into prevailing ideologies of liberation.
• The honour and interests of the community and nation still took precedence over women’s rights.
• Nevertheless, there were women who envisioned ‘freedom’ in a manner contrary to the dominant patriarchal conventions upheld by nationalist leaders, community elders, or party bosses.