Yojana Magazine August 2022 - 3 | Monthly Yojana & Kurukshetra Magazine (English) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


YOJANA   August 2022 43
o understand any nation and its current 
contexts, it is necessary to explore the sources 
present in the folk and rural areas and history. 
After all, what are these references and sources 
that help in understanding the makings of the Indian nation? 
What would be the time for understanding them and their 
history? What would be the ideology? What would be the 
theory? These are some of the questions which always 
trouble history scholars.
Jaishankar Prasad says about India: arun yeh madhumay 
desh hamara. And then, in the collective consciousness of the 
larger society of the country, the aspiration for national liberation 
in the form of words resonates all over with the sentiments of 
national aesthetic as– jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek 
sahara/ saral tamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha 
manohar/ chitka Jeevan hariyali par, 
mangal kumkum sara.
Although these feelings in the 
poetry of Jaishankar Prasad indicate 
the traditional nationalism of the 
Indian nation, writers like Bhartendu 
Harishchandra, Balkrishna Bhatt, 
Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, and Acharya 
Ramchandra Shukla, Acharya Hazari 
Prasad Dwivedi, Ram Vilas Sharma, 
etc., address it by associating it with 
national literature. It is also true that 
these creations inspired the Indians 
to stand prepared against the British 
Raj and create a historical form of 
nationalism in Indian society for 
which the country and its people are 
supreme.
Role of Hindi Literature
Devendra Choubey
The author is a Professor, Centre of Indian Languages, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. Email: devendrachoubeyjnu@gmail.com
T
The question is how to understand this form of 
nationalism created between 1857 and 1947. Should it 
be linked to the peasant movements of Gandhi, the Dalit 
references of Ambedkar, the revolutionary socialism 
of Bhagat Singh, or the radical nationalist attitude of 
Subhas Chandra Bose? It is a complex question, but what 
is important is the way Hindi writers like Premchand, 
Ramchandra Shukla, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, etc., see 
it in caste contexts. Writers like Rabindranath Tagore of 
Bengal consider it as a hypothetical consciousness. Tagore 
sees a deep understanding of the civilisation and cultures 
of the subcontinent in that consciousness, which he tries 
to understand through his novels like Gora and works like 
Gitanjali. Meanwhile, Premchand sees hidden currents 
of rural civilisation in it, which he tries to understand by 
associating them with the agricultural 
way of life.
But the folk memories and the 
various versions of folk creation 
imprinted in those memories help to 
understand the nationalist creations 
between 1857 and 1947. For example, 
dividing this form of nationalism and 
its historical consciousness into the 
following periods of the history of 
the Indian Independence movement 
somewhat helps in understanding 
the structure of Indian nationalism. 
First, the Struggle of 1857 and its 
culmination; second, 1873 and Indian 
Literature, Press and Journalism; 
1885, the Rise of the Congress and 
the rise of a new intellectual class; 
Arun yeh madhumay desh hamara.
Jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek sahara
Saral taamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha manohar
Chitka Jeevan hariyali par mangal kumkum sara.
– Jaishankar Prasad
shaPing consciousness
Page 2


YOJANA   August 2022 43
o understand any nation and its current 
contexts, it is necessary to explore the sources 
present in the folk and rural areas and history. 
After all, what are these references and sources 
that help in understanding the makings of the Indian nation? 
What would be the time for understanding them and their 
history? What would be the ideology? What would be the 
theory? These are some of the questions which always 
trouble history scholars.
Jaishankar Prasad says about India: arun yeh madhumay 
desh hamara. And then, in the collective consciousness of the 
larger society of the country, the aspiration for national liberation 
in the form of words resonates all over with the sentiments of 
national aesthetic as– jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek 
sahara/ saral tamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha 
manohar/ chitka Jeevan hariyali par, 
mangal kumkum sara.
Although these feelings in the 
poetry of Jaishankar Prasad indicate 
the traditional nationalism of the 
Indian nation, writers like Bhartendu 
Harishchandra, Balkrishna Bhatt, 
Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, and Acharya 
Ramchandra Shukla, Acharya Hazari 
Prasad Dwivedi, Ram Vilas Sharma, 
etc., address it by associating it with 
national literature. It is also true that 
these creations inspired the Indians 
to stand prepared against the British 
Raj and create a historical form of 
nationalism in Indian society for 
which the country and its people are 
supreme.
Role of Hindi Literature
Devendra Choubey
The author is a Professor, Centre of Indian Languages, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. Email: devendrachoubeyjnu@gmail.com
T
The question is how to understand this form of 
nationalism created between 1857 and 1947. Should it 
be linked to the peasant movements of Gandhi, the Dalit 
references of Ambedkar, the revolutionary socialism 
of Bhagat Singh, or the radical nationalist attitude of 
Subhas Chandra Bose? It is a complex question, but what 
is important is the way Hindi writers like Premchand, 
Ramchandra Shukla, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, etc., see 
it in caste contexts. Writers like Rabindranath Tagore of 
Bengal consider it as a hypothetical consciousness. Tagore 
sees a deep understanding of the civilisation and cultures 
of the subcontinent in that consciousness, which he tries 
to understand through his novels like Gora and works like 
Gitanjali. Meanwhile, Premchand sees hidden currents 
of rural civilisation in it, which he tries to understand by 
associating them with the agricultural 
way of life.
But the folk memories and the 
various versions of folk creation 
imprinted in those memories help to 
understand the nationalist creations 
between 1857 and 1947. For example, 
dividing this form of nationalism and 
its historical consciousness into the 
following periods of the history of 
the Indian Independence movement 
somewhat helps in understanding 
the structure of Indian nationalism. 
First, the Struggle of 1857 and its 
culmination; second, 1873 and Indian 
Literature, Press and Journalism; 
1885, the Rise of the Congress and 
the rise of a new intellectual class; 
Arun yeh madhumay desh hamara.
Jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek sahara
Saral taamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha manohar
Chitka Jeevan hariyali par mangal kumkum sara.
– Jaishankar Prasad
shaPing consciousness 44 YOJANA   August 2022
The Dalit renaissance also 
emerged in Maharashtra 
because of Savitribai Phule and 
Jyotiba Phule, which appeared 
on a bigger canvas in Indian 
Independence and social 
movements after 1920 following 
Ambedkar's arrival.
1905, the Partition of Bengal, the surge of the Independence 
movement; 1917, Gandhi, Ambedkar and the National stream 
of the Freedom Movement; 1942, Quit India Movement, 
Liberation context of Revolutionary Nationalism. 
Meanwhile, 1936 brought about a different meaning to 
the world of literature when the economically oppressed 
and socially exploited sections became the focal point of 
literature. It can be seen as nationalism of the oppressed and 
deprived sections, which Premchand alludes to in his novel 
‘Godan’ published in 1936. Godan is a splendid example 
of peasant nationalism. Premchand, in his novel, has tried 
to understand the meaning of nationalism for the deprived 
and exploited society on the pretext of the characters of a 
farmer, Hori and a labourer, Gobar. An important task will 
be understanding nationalism and contemporary India based 
on these contexts and the literary works highlighting them.
Indian Literature, Press and Journalism in 1873
What were the Rules and Acts that affected India after 
1857, especially after 1873, whose resonance is perceptible 
in the world of literature and journalism and against which 
the consciousness of an intellectual nationalism in Hindi- 
and Bengali-speaking society of North India is seen? 
Among them, two Acts made in 1858 are important: one, 
the Press Act, and the other, the Arms Act. It was the effect 
of these Acts that in India, from 1878 to 1947, many works, 
magazines, and books were banned by the British Raj, 
including Balkrishna Bhatt’s Hindi Pradeep, Premchand’s  
Soz-e-Watan, Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar’s Desher 
Katha, etc. The deep consciousness of resistance against 
the British Raj can be seen in these works. The biggest 
role of these works was creating a sense of discontent 
among the public against the British Raj. The Hindi writer 
Bhartendu Harishchandra played a big role in this. The 
poem Swapn by Mahesh Narayan, a poet of this period, 
while igniting a consciousness of resistance against these 
two Acts, points towards the same form of nationalism that 
John Plamenatz discusses. One can feel the consciousness 
of this intellectual nationalism in the following lines of 
Mahesh Narayan’s Swapn: Mahadev yeh raj swadhin 
karte (Mahadev would have made this kingdom free).
1 
Here, the poet uses the myth of Mahadev to avoid the clause 
of the British Press Act against him. It is also important 
to note that many Hindi writers of 
that period, including Balakrishna 
Bhatt, and Pratap Narayan Mishra 
have tried to understand Indianness 
through such myth, which sometimes 
some commentators associate with 
a particular religion. However, the 
reason behind using such analogies was 
that the British Raj’s laws and writers 
were resorting to religious notations to 
protect them from these laws.
1885: Rise of the Congress and Emergence of New 
Intellectuals
One reason for development of a particular stream 
of Indian nationalism by poets like Mahesh Narayan or 
writers like Bhartendu Harishchandra, Balkrishna Bhatt, 
Pratap Narayan Mishra, etc., was the English education 
along with the formation of the Congress in 1885. As a 
counter measure, it gradually developed a deep affection in 
Indians for the motherland and the native language. It was 
because of the Congress, that the Indian intellectual class 
also got a space, the effect of which was that after receiving 
the English education, this section played a big role in the 
freedom movement as a middle class, as seen in Amritlal 
Nagar’s novels like Karwat and Peediyan. Simultaneously, 
the Dalit renaissance also emerged in Maharashtra because 
of Savitribai Phule and Jyotiba Phule, which appeared 
on a bigger canvas in Indian Independence and social 
movements after 1920 following Ambedkar’s arrival. The 
seriousness with which Hindi writer Radhamohan Gokul 
wrote on Dalit and women’s issues in Hindi around 1890 
is significant. One of his works, Angrez Daku, published in 
1910, was also banned by the British. But it is unfortunate 
that none of his works find a mention in the history of 
Hindi literature. Among the critics of Hindi, Ram Vilas 
Sharma and Karmendu Shishir discuss him and consider 
his works an important part of the Hindi Renaissance. After 
understanding the policies of the British Raj, these writers, 
through their writings, developed a deep consciousness of 
patriotism in public. One can also say that the nationalist 
collective consciousness of resistance against the British Raj 
created by these writers on an intellectual level across the 
country is significantly visible in later Indian literature.
1905: Partition of Bengal and Surge of the Independence 
Movement
A later example is Rabindranath Tagore’s works after 
the Bengal partition in 1905. The images of the Indian 
nation Tagore creates in Gitanjali and other works deeply 
affect the entire world, including India. This song composed 
by Tagore in Gitanjali alludes to Indian nationalism which 
can be called a peasant-centered cultural nationalism and 
whose development is visible in the works of Hindi writers 
like Premchand after 1930. It expresses the pain of the 
agrarian society of being separated from 
the land that introduces us to a new form 
of nationalism. The poignancy with 
which Tagore expresses the sorrow of 
Bengal in Gitanjali is very touching. 
In this collection of poems, Bengal is 
mourning after its partition, wishing for 
a better future, and praying for regaining 
its prosperity snatched away by the 
British Raj as follows: Banglar mati, 
Banglar jol, Banglar bayu, Banglar 
Page 3


YOJANA   August 2022 43
o understand any nation and its current 
contexts, it is necessary to explore the sources 
present in the folk and rural areas and history. 
After all, what are these references and sources 
that help in understanding the makings of the Indian nation? 
What would be the time for understanding them and their 
history? What would be the ideology? What would be the 
theory? These are some of the questions which always 
trouble history scholars.
Jaishankar Prasad says about India: arun yeh madhumay 
desh hamara. And then, in the collective consciousness of the 
larger society of the country, the aspiration for national liberation 
in the form of words resonates all over with the sentiments of 
national aesthetic as– jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek 
sahara/ saral tamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha 
manohar/ chitka Jeevan hariyali par, 
mangal kumkum sara.
Although these feelings in the 
poetry of Jaishankar Prasad indicate 
the traditional nationalism of the 
Indian nation, writers like Bhartendu 
Harishchandra, Balkrishna Bhatt, 
Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, and Acharya 
Ramchandra Shukla, Acharya Hazari 
Prasad Dwivedi, Ram Vilas Sharma, 
etc., address it by associating it with 
national literature. It is also true that 
these creations inspired the Indians 
to stand prepared against the British 
Raj and create a historical form of 
nationalism in Indian society for 
which the country and its people are 
supreme.
Role of Hindi Literature
Devendra Choubey
The author is a Professor, Centre of Indian Languages, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. Email: devendrachoubeyjnu@gmail.com
T
The question is how to understand this form of 
nationalism created between 1857 and 1947. Should it 
be linked to the peasant movements of Gandhi, the Dalit 
references of Ambedkar, the revolutionary socialism 
of Bhagat Singh, or the radical nationalist attitude of 
Subhas Chandra Bose? It is a complex question, but what 
is important is the way Hindi writers like Premchand, 
Ramchandra Shukla, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, etc., see 
it in caste contexts. Writers like Rabindranath Tagore of 
Bengal consider it as a hypothetical consciousness. Tagore 
sees a deep understanding of the civilisation and cultures 
of the subcontinent in that consciousness, which he tries 
to understand through his novels like Gora and works like 
Gitanjali. Meanwhile, Premchand sees hidden currents 
of rural civilisation in it, which he tries to understand by 
associating them with the agricultural 
way of life.
But the folk memories and the 
various versions of folk creation 
imprinted in those memories help to 
understand the nationalist creations 
between 1857 and 1947. For example, 
dividing this form of nationalism and 
its historical consciousness into the 
following periods of the history of 
the Indian Independence movement 
somewhat helps in understanding 
the structure of Indian nationalism. 
First, the Struggle of 1857 and its 
culmination; second, 1873 and Indian 
Literature, Press and Journalism; 
1885, the Rise of the Congress and 
the rise of a new intellectual class; 
Arun yeh madhumay desh hamara.
Jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek sahara
Saral taamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha manohar
Chitka Jeevan hariyali par mangal kumkum sara.
– Jaishankar Prasad
shaPing consciousness 44 YOJANA   August 2022
The Dalit renaissance also 
emerged in Maharashtra 
because of Savitribai Phule and 
Jyotiba Phule, which appeared 
on a bigger canvas in Indian 
Independence and social 
movements after 1920 following 
Ambedkar's arrival.
1905, the Partition of Bengal, the surge of the Independence 
movement; 1917, Gandhi, Ambedkar and the National stream 
of the Freedom Movement; 1942, Quit India Movement, 
Liberation context of Revolutionary Nationalism. 
Meanwhile, 1936 brought about a different meaning to 
the world of literature when the economically oppressed 
and socially exploited sections became the focal point of 
literature. It can be seen as nationalism of the oppressed and 
deprived sections, which Premchand alludes to in his novel 
‘Godan’ published in 1936. Godan is a splendid example 
of peasant nationalism. Premchand, in his novel, has tried 
to understand the meaning of nationalism for the deprived 
and exploited society on the pretext of the characters of a 
farmer, Hori and a labourer, Gobar. An important task will 
be understanding nationalism and contemporary India based 
on these contexts and the literary works highlighting them.
Indian Literature, Press and Journalism in 1873
What were the Rules and Acts that affected India after 
1857, especially after 1873, whose resonance is perceptible 
in the world of literature and journalism and against which 
the consciousness of an intellectual nationalism in Hindi- 
and Bengali-speaking society of North India is seen? 
Among them, two Acts made in 1858 are important: one, 
the Press Act, and the other, the Arms Act. It was the effect 
of these Acts that in India, from 1878 to 1947, many works, 
magazines, and books were banned by the British Raj, 
including Balkrishna Bhatt’s Hindi Pradeep, Premchand’s  
Soz-e-Watan, Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar’s Desher 
Katha, etc. The deep consciousness of resistance against 
the British Raj can be seen in these works. The biggest 
role of these works was creating a sense of discontent 
among the public against the British Raj. The Hindi writer 
Bhartendu Harishchandra played a big role in this. The 
poem Swapn by Mahesh Narayan, a poet of this period, 
while igniting a consciousness of resistance against these 
two Acts, points towards the same form of nationalism that 
John Plamenatz discusses. One can feel the consciousness 
of this intellectual nationalism in the following lines of 
Mahesh Narayan’s Swapn: Mahadev yeh raj swadhin 
karte (Mahadev would have made this kingdom free).
1 
Here, the poet uses the myth of Mahadev to avoid the clause 
of the British Press Act against him. It is also important 
to note that many Hindi writers of 
that period, including Balakrishna 
Bhatt, and Pratap Narayan Mishra 
have tried to understand Indianness 
through such myth, which sometimes 
some commentators associate with 
a particular religion. However, the 
reason behind using such analogies was 
that the British Raj’s laws and writers 
were resorting to religious notations to 
protect them from these laws.
1885: Rise of the Congress and Emergence of New 
Intellectuals
One reason for development of a particular stream 
of Indian nationalism by poets like Mahesh Narayan or 
writers like Bhartendu Harishchandra, Balkrishna Bhatt, 
Pratap Narayan Mishra, etc., was the English education 
along with the formation of the Congress in 1885. As a 
counter measure, it gradually developed a deep affection in 
Indians for the motherland and the native language. It was 
because of the Congress, that the Indian intellectual class 
also got a space, the effect of which was that after receiving 
the English education, this section played a big role in the 
freedom movement as a middle class, as seen in Amritlal 
Nagar’s novels like Karwat and Peediyan. Simultaneously, 
the Dalit renaissance also emerged in Maharashtra because 
of Savitribai Phule and Jyotiba Phule, which appeared 
on a bigger canvas in Indian Independence and social 
movements after 1920 following Ambedkar’s arrival. The 
seriousness with which Hindi writer Radhamohan Gokul 
wrote on Dalit and women’s issues in Hindi around 1890 
is significant. One of his works, Angrez Daku, published in 
1910, was also banned by the British. But it is unfortunate 
that none of his works find a mention in the history of 
Hindi literature. Among the critics of Hindi, Ram Vilas 
Sharma and Karmendu Shishir discuss him and consider 
his works an important part of the Hindi Renaissance. After 
understanding the policies of the British Raj, these writers, 
through their writings, developed a deep consciousness of 
patriotism in public. One can also say that the nationalist 
collective consciousness of resistance against the British Raj 
created by these writers on an intellectual level across the 
country is significantly visible in later Indian literature.
1905: Partition of Bengal and Surge of the Independence 
Movement
A later example is Rabindranath Tagore’s works after 
the Bengal partition in 1905. The images of the Indian 
nation Tagore creates in Gitanjali and other works deeply 
affect the entire world, including India. This song composed 
by Tagore in Gitanjali alludes to Indian nationalism which 
can be called a peasant-centered cultural nationalism and 
whose development is visible in the works of Hindi writers 
like Premchand after 1930. It expresses the pain of the 
agrarian society of being separated from 
the land that introduces us to a new form 
of nationalism. The poignancy with 
which Tagore expresses the sorrow of 
Bengal in Gitanjali is very touching. 
In this collection of poems, Bengal is 
mourning after its partition, wishing for 
a better future, and praying for regaining 
its prosperity snatched away by the 
British Raj as follows: Banglar mati, 
Banglar jol, Banglar bayu, Banglar 
YOJANA   August 2022 45
The nationalist collective 
consciousness of resistance 
against the British Raj created 
by these writers on an 
intellectual level across the 
country is significantly visible in 
later Indian literature.
phal/ Punyo hauk, Punyo hauk, Punyo 
hauk, hey bhagoban!/ Banglar ghar, 
Banglar haat, Banglar bon, Banglar 
Maath. Purno hauk, Purno hauk, Purno 
hauk, hey bhagoban!
It is the narrative of the Indian 
Independence Movement that the 
masses created with peasant nationalism. 
Among the nationalist leaders, Gandhi 
was the first to identify it. But its 
foundation was laid back in 1905 when the people across 
the nation, including Bengal, intensified their struggle 
against the British Raj. As a result, eminent leaders like 
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, etc., joined 
the movement after 1905 and infused a new consciousness 
towards the nation, which gained immense strength after 
Gandhi’s entry in 1917.
1917: Gandhian Influence
In fact, after the First World War, Gandhi went to 
Champaran in 1917 as soon as he returned from Africa and 
met the indigo farmers there. His meeting with the farmers 
of Champaran was a national event. The impact of Gandhi’s 
travels on rural society across India was profound. He 
motivated farmers to join non-violent movements and be an 
ally in building a free and fearless nation. A folk poet of  
Khari Boli has enthusiastically described this active 
state of mind of resistance and creation in the following 
lines: Sabarmati se chala sant, ek ahimsadhari/ jagti mein 
sannata chaya ghumi prithvi saari/ kampe kamariya haath 
mein lathi ek langotidhari/ ...ghar mein ja ja alakh jagaya, 
azadi ka path padhaya/ Khadi-dhari hamein banaya Bharat 
tera pujari. An unknown poet of Bhojpuri has also mentioned 
Gandhi’s similar effect: Maan Gandhi ke bachanwa dukhwa 
ho jahiye sapanva/ tan pe utaar kapda videshi, khaddar ke 
kail dharanwa. Gandhi’s influence on the public reflects in 
the following folk song by Haipou Jadonang, belonging to 
the Kacha Naga ethnicity and associated with the Kabui 
Revolution of Northeast India, in connection with Gandhi’s 
visit to Silchar in 1927: O Mahatma Gandhi! hamare raja 
ban jayiye/ aayiye ji aayiye!
1942: Quit India Movement, Liberation Context of 
Revolutionary Nationalism
What happened to Mahatma Gandhi in 1942 when he 
was compelled to coin the slogan ‘Do or Die’? The famous 
historian Shahid Amin in his article on Chauri Chaura 
entitled Smriti aur itihas: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992, 
points out that at times the people or farmers wanted to see 
Gandhi as a fighter who should not only be a coordinator 
but also take up arms when the situation demands and 
confront the enemies. Such hints are also found in some 
folk poems. For instance, khwab driver ne jo dekha vah 
mein karta jahir/ ek bayaban mein kuch gujar raha hai 
gard-o-gubar/ aa rahi fauj hai us simat se das bees hazar/ 
aur hai Gandhiji fauj mein aala sardar/ 
aur sorajya ka is hath mein hai alam/ 
sare dushman ko vah karte chale aate 
kalam/ har ek angrez ke jab kaan mein 
pahunchi ye sada/jaisa socha kiya vah 
nang dharang bhaga…
2
In the above lines, the folk poet’s 
desire that Gandhi had attacked the 
British as chief of the army of ten-
twenty thousand soldiers created a 
distinct form of mass nationalism. It depicted him becoming 
violent for the cause of Swaraj and marching with the native 
army, attacking the British, and beheading them. On hearing 
this news, the British army panicked. Everyone ran helter-
skelter, in whatever condition they were. Such imagery 
about Gandhi was rarely seen, but the public aspiration that 
he can also be violent is unimaginable and presented his 
image as a warrior.
The character of Indian nationalism seen between 1857 
and 1947 points toward the nationalism of the common 
people, in which there is nothing other than the nation’s 
liberation at the centre. The writings in Hindi literature or 
folk memories also focus on political emancipation and 
correspondingly raise the question of social emancipation 
with aplomb, in which the issue of women and Dalit 
emancipation comes up prominently. The images of 
nationalism created during the Indian Independence 
movement have been deeply discussed and debated by 
historians and intellectuals in many fields. That is why this 
period of Indian history is seen as a foundation of the Indian 
nation on which India, after 1947, was built. This India is as 
democratic and secular as it should be in the international 
arena and whose collective consciousness is centred on the 
Indian tradition of knowledge and thought process.           ?
References
1. Swapna, Bihar Bandhu, 13 October , 1881
2.  Kashganj Ka Khwaab, 1921; confiscated Urdu Pamphlets, No. 141, 
India Office Library, London
Endnotes
1. P . C. Joshi, ed.: 2007; Rebellion 1857; National Book Trust, India, Delhi.
2. Rashmi Choudhary; 2012; Bharateey Raashtravaad Ka Nimnavargeey 
Prasang; Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi.
3. Devendra Choubey, Badrinarayan and Hitendra Patel; 2008; 1857: 
Bhaarat Ka Pahala Mukti Sangharsh; Prakaahan Sansthan, Delhi.
4. Shahid Amin and Gyanendra Pandey; 1995 & 2002; Nimnavargeey 
Prasang, Bhaag Ek Aur Do; Raajakamal Prakashan, Delhi.
5. S. N. R. Rizvi; 2021; The Rebel World of 1857; Kalpaz Publication, 
Delhi.
6. Badrinarayan, Rashmi Choudhary and Sanjay Nath; 2010; 1857 Ka 
Mahaasangraam; Aadhaar Prakashan, Delhi.
7. Rashmi Choudhary and Devendra Choubey; 2016; Aadhunik Bharat 
Ke Itihaas Lekhan Ke Kuchh Sahityik Srot; Ganapat Teli, Devina 
Akshayavar & Khushi Patanaayak, Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi.
8. Jagmal Singh; 2020; Poorvottar Ki Janajaateey Krantiyaan; 
Raashtreey Pustak Nyaas, Bharat; Delhi.
Page 4


YOJANA   August 2022 43
o understand any nation and its current 
contexts, it is necessary to explore the sources 
present in the folk and rural areas and history. 
After all, what are these references and sources 
that help in understanding the makings of the Indian nation? 
What would be the time for understanding them and their 
history? What would be the ideology? What would be the 
theory? These are some of the questions which always 
trouble history scholars.
Jaishankar Prasad says about India: arun yeh madhumay 
desh hamara. And then, in the collective consciousness of the 
larger society of the country, the aspiration for national liberation 
in the form of words resonates all over with the sentiments of 
national aesthetic as– jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek 
sahara/ saral tamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha 
manohar/ chitka Jeevan hariyali par, 
mangal kumkum sara.
Although these feelings in the 
poetry of Jaishankar Prasad indicate 
the traditional nationalism of the 
Indian nation, writers like Bhartendu 
Harishchandra, Balkrishna Bhatt, 
Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, and Acharya 
Ramchandra Shukla, Acharya Hazari 
Prasad Dwivedi, Ram Vilas Sharma, 
etc., address it by associating it with 
national literature. It is also true that 
these creations inspired the Indians 
to stand prepared against the British 
Raj and create a historical form of 
nationalism in Indian society for 
which the country and its people are 
supreme.
Role of Hindi Literature
Devendra Choubey
The author is a Professor, Centre of Indian Languages, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. Email: devendrachoubeyjnu@gmail.com
T
The question is how to understand this form of 
nationalism created between 1857 and 1947. Should it 
be linked to the peasant movements of Gandhi, the Dalit 
references of Ambedkar, the revolutionary socialism 
of Bhagat Singh, or the radical nationalist attitude of 
Subhas Chandra Bose? It is a complex question, but what 
is important is the way Hindi writers like Premchand, 
Ramchandra Shukla, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, etc., see 
it in caste contexts. Writers like Rabindranath Tagore of 
Bengal consider it as a hypothetical consciousness. Tagore 
sees a deep understanding of the civilisation and cultures 
of the subcontinent in that consciousness, which he tries 
to understand through his novels like Gora and works like 
Gitanjali. Meanwhile, Premchand sees hidden currents 
of rural civilisation in it, which he tries to understand by 
associating them with the agricultural 
way of life.
But the folk memories and the 
various versions of folk creation 
imprinted in those memories help to 
understand the nationalist creations 
between 1857 and 1947. For example, 
dividing this form of nationalism and 
its historical consciousness into the 
following periods of the history of 
the Indian Independence movement 
somewhat helps in understanding 
the structure of Indian nationalism. 
First, the Struggle of 1857 and its 
culmination; second, 1873 and Indian 
Literature, Press and Journalism; 
1885, the Rise of the Congress and 
the rise of a new intellectual class; 
Arun yeh madhumay desh hamara.
Jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek sahara
Saral taamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha manohar
Chitka Jeevan hariyali par mangal kumkum sara.
– Jaishankar Prasad
shaPing consciousness 44 YOJANA   August 2022
The Dalit renaissance also 
emerged in Maharashtra 
because of Savitribai Phule and 
Jyotiba Phule, which appeared 
on a bigger canvas in Indian 
Independence and social 
movements after 1920 following 
Ambedkar's arrival.
1905, the Partition of Bengal, the surge of the Independence 
movement; 1917, Gandhi, Ambedkar and the National stream 
of the Freedom Movement; 1942, Quit India Movement, 
Liberation context of Revolutionary Nationalism. 
Meanwhile, 1936 brought about a different meaning to 
the world of literature when the economically oppressed 
and socially exploited sections became the focal point of 
literature. It can be seen as nationalism of the oppressed and 
deprived sections, which Premchand alludes to in his novel 
‘Godan’ published in 1936. Godan is a splendid example 
of peasant nationalism. Premchand, in his novel, has tried 
to understand the meaning of nationalism for the deprived 
and exploited society on the pretext of the characters of a 
farmer, Hori and a labourer, Gobar. An important task will 
be understanding nationalism and contemporary India based 
on these contexts and the literary works highlighting them.
Indian Literature, Press and Journalism in 1873
What were the Rules and Acts that affected India after 
1857, especially after 1873, whose resonance is perceptible 
in the world of literature and journalism and against which 
the consciousness of an intellectual nationalism in Hindi- 
and Bengali-speaking society of North India is seen? 
Among them, two Acts made in 1858 are important: one, 
the Press Act, and the other, the Arms Act. It was the effect 
of these Acts that in India, from 1878 to 1947, many works, 
magazines, and books were banned by the British Raj, 
including Balkrishna Bhatt’s Hindi Pradeep, Premchand’s  
Soz-e-Watan, Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar’s Desher 
Katha, etc. The deep consciousness of resistance against 
the British Raj can be seen in these works. The biggest 
role of these works was creating a sense of discontent 
among the public against the British Raj. The Hindi writer 
Bhartendu Harishchandra played a big role in this. The 
poem Swapn by Mahesh Narayan, a poet of this period, 
while igniting a consciousness of resistance against these 
two Acts, points towards the same form of nationalism that 
John Plamenatz discusses. One can feel the consciousness 
of this intellectual nationalism in the following lines of 
Mahesh Narayan’s Swapn: Mahadev yeh raj swadhin 
karte (Mahadev would have made this kingdom free).
1 
Here, the poet uses the myth of Mahadev to avoid the clause 
of the British Press Act against him. It is also important 
to note that many Hindi writers of 
that period, including Balakrishna 
Bhatt, and Pratap Narayan Mishra 
have tried to understand Indianness 
through such myth, which sometimes 
some commentators associate with 
a particular religion. However, the 
reason behind using such analogies was 
that the British Raj’s laws and writers 
were resorting to religious notations to 
protect them from these laws.
1885: Rise of the Congress and Emergence of New 
Intellectuals
One reason for development of a particular stream 
of Indian nationalism by poets like Mahesh Narayan or 
writers like Bhartendu Harishchandra, Balkrishna Bhatt, 
Pratap Narayan Mishra, etc., was the English education 
along with the formation of the Congress in 1885. As a 
counter measure, it gradually developed a deep affection in 
Indians for the motherland and the native language. It was 
because of the Congress, that the Indian intellectual class 
also got a space, the effect of which was that after receiving 
the English education, this section played a big role in the 
freedom movement as a middle class, as seen in Amritlal 
Nagar’s novels like Karwat and Peediyan. Simultaneously, 
the Dalit renaissance also emerged in Maharashtra because 
of Savitribai Phule and Jyotiba Phule, which appeared 
on a bigger canvas in Indian Independence and social 
movements after 1920 following Ambedkar’s arrival. The 
seriousness with which Hindi writer Radhamohan Gokul 
wrote on Dalit and women’s issues in Hindi around 1890 
is significant. One of his works, Angrez Daku, published in 
1910, was also banned by the British. But it is unfortunate 
that none of his works find a mention in the history of 
Hindi literature. Among the critics of Hindi, Ram Vilas 
Sharma and Karmendu Shishir discuss him and consider 
his works an important part of the Hindi Renaissance. After 
understanding the policies of the British Raj, these writers, 
through their writings, developed a deep consciousness of 
patriotism in public. One can also say that the nationalist 
collective consciousness of resistance against the British Raj 
created by these writers on an intellectual level across the 
country is significantly visible in later Indian literature.
1905: Partition of Bengal and Surge of the Independence 
Movement
A later example is Rabindranath Tagore’s works after 
the Bengal partition in 1905. The images of the Indian 
nation Tagore creates in Gitanjali and other works deeply 
affect the entire world, including India. This song composed 
by Tagore in Gitanjali alludes to Indian nationalism which 
can be called a peasant-centered cultural nationalism and 
whose development is visible in the works of Hindi writers 
like Premchand after 1930. It expresses the pain of the 
agrarian society of being separated from 
the land that introduces us to a new form 
of nationalism. The poignancy with 
which Tagore expresses the sorrow of 
Bengal in Gitanjali is very touching. 
In this collection of poems, Bengal is 
mourning after its partition, wishing for 
a better future, and praying for regaining 
its prosperity snatched away by the 
British Raj as follows: Banglar mati, 
Banglar jol, Banglar bayu, Banglar 
YOJANA   August 2022 45
The nationalist collective 
consciousness of resistance 
against the British Raj created 
by these writers on an 
intellectual level across the 
country is significantly visible in 
later Indian literature.
phal/ Punyo hauk, Punyo hauk, Punyo 
hauk, hey bhagoban!/ Banglar ghar, 
Banglar haat, Banglar bon, Banglar 
Maath. Purno hauk, Purno hauk, Purno 
hauk, hey bhagoban!
It is the narrative of the Indian 
Independence Movement that the 
masses created with peasant nationalism. 
Among the nationalist leaders, Gandhi 
was the first to identify it. But its 
foundation was laid back in 1905 when the people across 
the nation, including Bengal, intensified their struggle 
against the British Raj. As a result, eminent leaders like 
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, etc., joined 
the movement after 1905 and infused a new consciousness 
towards the nation, which gained immense strength after 
Gandhi’s entry in 1917.
1917: Gandhian Influence
In fact, after the First World War, Gandhi went to 
Champaran in 1917 as soon as he returned from Africa and 
met the indigo farmers there. His meeting with the farmers 
of Champaran was a national event. The impact of Gandhi’s 
travels on rural society across India was profound. He 
motivated farmers to join non-violent movements and be an 
ally in building a free and fearless nation. A folk poet of  
Khari Boli has enthusiastically described this active 
state of mind of resistance and creation in the following 
lines: Sabarmati se chala sant, ek ahimsadhari/ jagti mein 
sannata chaya ghumi prithvi saari/ kampe kamariya haath 
mein lathi ek langotidhari/ ...ghar mein ja ja alakh jagaya, 
azadi ka path padhaya/ Khadi-dhari hamein banaya Bharat 
tera pujari. An unknown poet of Bhojpuri has also mentioned 
Gandhi’s similar effect: Maan Gandhi ke bachanwa dukhwa 
ho jahiye sapanva/ tan pe utaar kapda videshi, khaddar ke 
kail dharanwa. Gandhi’s influence on the public reflects in 
the following folk song by Haipou Jadonang, belonging to 
the Kacha Naga ethnicity and associated with the Kabui 
Revolution of Northeast India, in connection with Gandhi’s 
visit to Silchar in 1927: O Mahatma Gandhi! hamare raja 
ban jayiye/ aayiye ji aayiye!
1942: Quit India Movement, Liberation Context of 
Revolutionary Nationalism
What happened to Mahatma Gandhi in 1942 when he 
was compelled to coin the slogan ‘Do or Die’? The famous 
historian Shahid Amin in his article on Chauri Chaura 
entitled Smriti aur itihas: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992, 
points out that at times the people or farmers wanted to see 
Gandhi as a fighter who should not only be a coordinator 
but also take up arms when the situation demands and 
confront the enemies. Such hints are also found in some 
folk poems. For instance, khwab driver ne jo dekha vah 
mein karta jahir/ ek bayaban mein kuch gujar raha hai 
gard-o-gubar/ aa rahi fauj hai us simat se das bees hazar/ 
aur hai Gandhiji fauj mein aala sardar/ 
aur sorajya ka is hath mein hai alam/ 
sare dushman ko vah karte chale aate 
kalam/ har ek angrez ke jab kaan mein 
pahunchi ye sada/jaisa socha kiya vah 
nang dharang bhaga…
2
In the above lines, the folk poet’s 
desire that Gandhi had attacked the 
British as chief of the army of ten-
twenty thousand soldiers created a 
distinct form of mass nationalism. It depicted him becoming 
violent for the cause of Swaraj and marching with the native 
army, attacking the British, and beheading them. On hearing 
this news, the British army panicked. Everyone ran helter-
skelter, in whatever condition they were. Such imagery 
about Gandhi was rarely seen, but the public aspiration that 
he can also be violent is unimaginable and presented his 
image as a warrior.
The character of Indian nationalism seen between 1857 
and 1947 points toward the nationalism of the common 
people, in which there is nothing other than the nation’s 
liberation at the centre. The writings in Hindi literature or 
folk memories also focus on political emancipation and 
correspondingly raise the question of social emancipation 
with aplomb, in which the issue of women and Dalit 
emancipation comes up prominently. The images of 
nationalism created during the Indian Independence 
movement have been deeply discussed and debated by 
historians and intellectuals in many fields. That is why this 
period of Indian history is seen as a foundation of the Indian 
nation on which India, after 1947, was built. This India is as 
democratic and secular as it should be in the international 
arena and whose collective consciousness is centred on the 
Indian tradition of knowledge and thought process.           ?
References
1. Swapna, Bihar Bandhu, 13 October , 1881
2.  Kashganj Ka Khwaab, 1921; confiscated Urdu Pamphlets, No. 141, 
India Office Library, London
Endnotes
1. P . C. Joshi, ed.: 2007; Rebellion 1857; National Book Trust, India, Delhi.
2. Rashmi Choudhary; 2012; Bharateey Raashtravaad Ka Nimnavargeey 
Prasang; Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi.
3. Devendra Choubey, Badrinarayan and Hitendra Patel; 2008; 1857: 
Bhaarat Ka Pahala Mukti Sangharsh; Prakaahan Sansthan, Delhi.
4. Shahid Amin and Gyanendra Pandey; 1995 & 2002; Nimnavargeey 
Prasang, Bhaag Ek Aur Do; Raajakamal Prakashan, Delhi.
5. S. N. R. Rizvi; 2021; The Rebel World of 1857; Kalpaz Publication, 
Delhi.
6. Badrinarayan, Rashmi Choudhary and Sanjay Nath; 2010; 1857 Ka 
Mahaasangraam; Aadhaar Prakashan, Delhi.
7. Rashmi Choudhary and Devendra Choubey; 2016; Aadhunik Bharat 
Ke Itihaas Lekhan Ke Kuchh Sahityik Srot; Ganapat Teli, Devina 
Akshayavar & Khushi Patanaayak, Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi.
8. Jagmal Singh; 2020; Poorvottar Ki Janajaateey Krantiyaan; 
Raashtreey Pustak Nyaas, Bharat; Delhi.
YOJANA   August 2022 47
espite being a geographic entity, India, 
before the advent of the East India 
Company, acutely lacked in having a sense 
of nationalism as its inhabitants considered 
their own States of residence, as their country and not 
India as a whole. The number of such States was beyond 
six hundred at that point of time. With the decline of 
the Mughal Empire and direct/indirect meddling of the 
Company, Indian Princely States started falling prey to 
the Company’s diplomacy and military advances that 
culminated into British rule in India.
Much before the First War of Independence of 
1857, Urdu poets had started expressing their anguish 
over the decline of rule of law, rampant corruption and 
loss of time testing human values. 
They composed the poetic genre 
‘Shahr-Aashob’ (urban unrest) 
not only to record socio-political 
ground realities of their time but 
also to express their indignation at 
the political situation that prevailed. 
‘Shahr-Aashob’, penned by poets 
like Shah Hatim, Ashraf Ali Fughan, 
Mohammad Rafi Sauda, Mir Taqi 
Mir, took lead in commenting on 
the disturbing political situation 
and ventured to criticise the ruling 
Princes as well. 
A century before 1857, with the 
defeat of Shah Alam II, Mir Qasim 
and the Wazir of Awadh, Shuja-ud-
Daula, in the Battle of Plassey in 
1757, and Tipu Sultan’s defeat and 
death in the Battle of Srirangapatna 
in 1799, nationalism had started 
taking shape in Urdu poetry. Many 
poems were written to mourn the 
death of Tipu Sultan. 
The First War of Independence of 
1857 became tumultuous as it stirred 
Role of Urdu Literature
Dr Naresh
The author is a former Professor of Modern Literature at Panjab University & Chairman, Chandigarh Academy of Letters.
Email: dr.naresh.chd@gmail.com
Jashn-e-azadi D
the consciousness of Urdu poets whose expression of 
indignation at the Company rules resulted in destroying 
local industries and meddling with religious matters 
of the land. The defeat of Indian revolutionaries at 
the hands of the British led to an era of nationalism. 
Many Urdu poets who were composing poetry to induce 
courage and valour of self-sacrifice were hanged by 
the British. These included, among others, Rahim-ud-
Din Ejad, Zafaryab Rasikh Dehlvi, Ghazanfar Sayeed, 
Aziz Dehlavi, Suroor Gurganvi, Ghyas-ud-Din Sharar, 
Qamar-ud-Din Shaida, Hadi Sambhali and Ismail Fauq. 
Quite a few poets did not write revolutionary 
poetry, but jumped into the battlefield against the 
British. Poet Aziz Moradabadi brandished his sword 
Some of the Urdu publications of DPD
Page 5


YOJANA   August 2022 43
o understand any nation and its current 
contexts, it is necessary to explore the sources 
present in the folk and rural areas and history. 
After all, what are these references and sources 
that help in understanding the makings of the Indian nation? 
What would be the time for understanding them and their 
history? What would be the ideology? What would be the 
theory? These are some of the questions which always 
trouble history scholars.
Jaishankar Prasad says about India: arun yeh madhumay 
desh hamara. And then, in the collective consciousness of the 
larger society of the country, the aspiration for national liberation 
in the form of words resonates all over with the sentiments of 
national aesthetic as– jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek 
sahara/ saral tamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha 
manohar/ chitka Jeevan hariyali par, 
mangal kumkum sara.
Although these feelings in the 
poetry of Jaishankar Prasad indicate 
the traditional nationalism of the 
Indian nation, writers like Bhartendu 
Harishchandra, Balkrishna Bhatt, 
Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, and Acharya 
Ramchandra Shukla, Acharya Hazari 
Prasad Dwivedi, Ram Vilas Sharma, 
etc., address it by associating it with 
national literature. It is also true that 
these creations inspired the Indians 
to stand prepared against the British 
Raj and create a historical form of 
nationalism in Indian society for 
which the country and its people are 
supreme.
Role of Hindi Literature
Devendra Choubey
The author is a Professor, Centre of Indian Languages, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. Email: devendrachoubeyjnu@gmail.com
T
The question is how to understand this form of 
nationalism created between 1857 and 1947. Should it 
be linked to the peasant movements of Gandhi, the Dalit 
references of Ambedkar, the revolutionary socialism 
of Bhagat Singh, or the radical nationalist attitude of 
Subhas Chandra Bose? It is a complex question, but what 
is important is the way Hindi writers like Premchand, 
Ramchandra Shukla, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, etc., see 
it in caste contexts. Writers like Rabindranath Tagore of 
Bengal consider it as a hypothetical consciousness. Tagore 
sees a deep understanding of the civilisation and cultures 
of the subcontinent in that consciousness, which he tries 
to understand through his novels like Gora and works like 
Gitanjali. Meanwhile, Premchand sees hidden currents 
of rural civilisation in it, which he tries to understand by 
associating them with the agricultural 
way of life.
But the folk memories and the 
various versions of folk creation 
imprinted in those memories help to 
understand the nationalist creations 
between 1857 and 1947. For example, 
dividing this form of nationalism and 
its historical consciousness into the 
following periods of the history of 
the Indian Independence movement 
somewhat helps in understanding 
the structure of Indian nationalism. 
First, the Struggle of 1857 and its 
culmination; second, 1873 and Indian 
Literature, Press and Journalism; 
1885, the Rise of the Congress and 
the rise of a new intellectual class; 
Arun yeh madhumay desh hamara.
Jahan pahunch anjan kshitij ko milta ek sahara
Saral taamras garbh vibha par naach rahi tarushikha manohar
Chitka Jeevan hariyali par mangal kumkum sara.
– Jaishankar Prasad
shaPing consciousness 44 YOJANA   August 2022
The Dalit renaissance also 
emerged in Maharashtra 
because of Savitribai Phule and 
Jyotiba Phule, which appeared 
on a bigger canvas in Indian 
Independence and social 
movements after 1920 following 
Ambedkar's arrival.
1905, the Partition of Bengal, the surge of the Independence 
movement; 1917, Gandhi, Ambedkar and the National stream 
of the Freedom Movement; 1942, Quit India Movement, 
Liberation context of Revolutionary Nationalism. 
Meanwhile, 1936 brought about a different meaning to 
the world of literature when the economically oppressed 
and socially exploited sections became the focal point of 
literature. It can be seen as nationalism of the oppressed and 
deprived sections, which Premchand alludes to in his novel 
‘Godan’ published in 1936. Godan is a splendid example 
of peasant nationalism. Premchand, in his novel, has tried 
to understand the meaning of nationalism for the deprived 
and exploited society on the pretext of the characters of a 
farmer, Hori and a labourer, Gobar. An important task will 
be understanding nationalism and contemporary India based 
on these contexts and the literary works highlighting them.
Indian Literature, Press and Journalism in 1873
What were the Rules and Acts that affected India after 
1857, especially after 1873, whose resonance is perceptible 
in the world of literature and journalism and against which 
the consciousness of an intellectual nationalism in Hindi- 
and Bengali-speaking society of North India is seen? 
Among them, two Acts made in 1858 are important: one, 
the Press Act, and the other, the Arms Act. It was the effect 
of these Acts that in India, from 1878 to 1947, many works, 
magazines, and books were banned by the British Raj, 
including Balkrishna Bhatt’s Hindi Pradeep, Premchand’s  
Soz-e-Watan, Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar’s Desher 
Katha, etc. The deep consciousness of resistance against 
the British Raj can be seen in these works. The biggest 
role of these works was creating a sense of discontent 
among the public against the British Raj. The Hindi writer 
Bhartendu Harishchandra played a big role in this. The 
poem Swapn by Mahesh Narayan, a poet of this period, 
while igniting a consciousness of resistance against these 
two Acts, points towards the same form of nationalism that 
John Plamenatz discusses. One can feel the consciousness 
of this intellectual nationalism in the following lines of 
Mahesh Narayan’s Swapn: Mahadev yeh raj swadhin 
karte (Mahadev would have made this kingdom free).
1 
Here, the poet uses the myth of Mahadev to avoid the clause 
of the British Press Act against him. It is also important 
to note that many Hindi writers of 
that period, including Balakrishna 
Bhatt, and Pratap Narayan Mishra 
have tried to understand Indianness 
through such myth, which sometimes 
some commentators associate with 
a particular religion. However, the 
reason behind using such analogies was 
that the British Raj’s laws and writers 
were resorting to religious notations to 
protect them from these laws.
1885: Rise of the Congress and Emergence of New 
Intellectuals
One reason for development of a particular stream 
of Indian nationalism by poets like Mahesh Narayan or 
writers like Bhartendu Harishchandra, Balkrishna Bhatt, 
Pratap Narayan Mishra, etc., was the English education 
along with the formation of the Congress in 1885. As a 
counter measure, it gradually developed a deep affection in 
Indians for the motherland and the native language. It was 
because of the Congress, that the Indian intellectual class 
also got a space, the effect of which was that after receiving 
the English education, this section played a big role in the 
freedom movement as a middle class, as seen in Amritlal 
Nagar’s novels like Karwat and Peediyan. Simultaneously, 
the Dalit renaissance also emerged in Maharashtra because 
of Savitribai Phule and Jyotiba Phule, which appeared 
on a bigger canvas in Indian Independence and social 
movements after 1920 following Ambedkar’s arrival. The 
seriousness with which Hindi writer Radhamohan Gokul 
wrote on Dalit and women’s issues in Hindi around 1890 
is significant. One of his works, Angrez Daku, published in 
1910, was also banned by the British. But it is unfortunate 
that none of his works find a mention in the history of 
Hindi literature. Among the critics of Hindi, Ram Vilas 
Sharma and Karmendu Shishir discuss him and consider 
his works an important part of the Hindi Renaissance. After 
understanding the policies of the British Raj, these writers, 
through their writings, developed a deep consciousness of 
patriotism in public. One can also say that the nationalist 
collective consciousness of resistance against the British Raj 
created by these writers on an intellectual level across the 
country is significantly visible in later Indian literature.
1905: Partition of Bengal and Surge of the Independence 
Movement
A later example is Rabindranath Tagore’s works after 
the Bengal partition in 1905. The images of the Indian 
nation Tagore creates in Gitanjali and other works deeply 
affect the entire world, including India. This song composed 
by Tagore in Gitanjali alludes to Indian nationalism which 
can be called a peasant-centered cultural nationalism and 
whose development is visible in the works of Hindi writers 
like Premchand after 1930. It expresses the pain of the 
agrarian society of being separated from 
the land that introduces us to a new form 
of nationalism. The poignancy with 
which Tagore expresses the sorrow of 
Bengal in Gitanjali is very touching. 
In this collection of poems, Bengal is 
mourning after its partition, wishing for 
a better future, and praying for regaining 
its prosperity snatched away by the 
British Raj as follows: Banglar mati, 
Banglar jol, Banglar bayu, Banglar 
YOJANA   August 2022 45
The nationalist collective 
consciousness of resistance 
against the British Raj created 
by these writers on an 
intellectual level across the 
country is significantly visible in 
later Indian literature.
phal/ Punyo hauk, Punyo hauk, Punyo 
hauk, hey bhagoban!/ Banglar ghar, 
Banglar haat, Banglar bon, Banglar 
Maath. Purno hauk, Purno hauk, Purno 
hauk, hey bhagoban!
It is the narrative of the Indian 
Independence Movement that the 
masses created with peasant nationalism. 
Among the nationalist leaders, Gandhi 
was the first to identify it. But its 
foundation was laid back in 1905 when the people across 
the nation, including Bengal, intensified their struggle 
against the British Raj. As a result, eminent leaders like 
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, etc., joined 
the movement after 1905 and infused a new consciousness 
towards the nation, which gained immense strength after 
Gandhi’s entry in 1917.
1917: Gandhian Influence
In fact, after the First World War, Gandhi went to 
Champaran in 1917 as soon as he returned from Africa and 
met the indigo farmers there. His meeting with the farmers 
of Champaran was a national event. The impact of Gandhi’s 
travels on rural society across India was profound. He 
motivated farmers to join non-violent movements and be an 
ally in building a free and fearless nation. A folk poet of  
Khari Boli has enthusiastically described this active 
state of mind of resistance and creation in the following 
lines: Sabarmati se chala sant, ek ahimsadhari/ jagti mein 
sannata chaya ghumi prithvi saari/ kampe kamariya haath 
mein lathi ek langotidhari/ ...ghar mein ja ja alakh jagaya, 
azadi ka path padhaya/ Khadi-dhari hamein banaya Bharat 
tera pujari. An unknown poet of Bhojpuri has also mentioned 
Gandhi’s similar effect: Maan Gandhi ke bachanwa dukhwa 
ho jahiye sapanva/ tan pe utaar kapda videshi, khaddar ke 
kail dharanwa. Gandhi’s influence on the public reflects in 
the following folk song by Haipou Jadonang, belonging to 
the Kacha Naga ethnicity and associated with the Kabui 
Revolution of Northeast India, in connection with Gandhi’s 
visit to Silchar in 1927: O Mahatma Gandhi! hamare raja 
ban jayiye/ aayiye ji aayiye!
1942: Quit India Movement, Liberation Context of 
Revolutionary Nationalism
What happened to Mahatma Gandhi in 1942 when he 
was compelled to coin the slogan ‘Do or Die’? The famous 
historian Shahid Amin in his article on Chauri Chaura 
entitled Smriti aur itihas: Chauri Chaura, 1922-1992, 
points out that at times the people or farmers wanted to see 
Gandhi as a fighter who should not only be a coordinator 
but also take up arms when the situation demands and 
confront the enemies. Such hints are also found in some 
folk poems. For instance, khwab driver ne jo dekha vah 
mein karta jahir/ ek bayaban mein kuch gujar raha hai 
gard-o-gubar/ aa rahi fauj hai us simat se das bees hazar/ 
aur hai Gandhiji fauj mein aala sardar/ 
aur sorajya ka is hath mein hai alam/ 
sare dushman ko vah karte chale aate 
kalam/ har ek angrez ke jab kaan mein 
pahunchi ye sada/jaisa socha kiya vah 
nang dharang bhaga…
2
In the above lines, the folk poet’s 
desire that Gandhi had attacked the 
British as chief of the army of ten-
twenty thousand soldiers created a 
distinct form of mass nationalism. It depicted him becoming 
violent for the cause of Swaraj and marching with the native 
army, attacking the British, and beheading them. On hearing 
this news, the British army panicked. Everyone ran helter-
skelter, in whatever condition they were. Such imagery 
about Gandhi was rarely seen, but the public aspiration that 
he can also be violent is unimaginable and presented his 
image as a warrior.
The character of Indian nationalism seen between 1857 
and 1947 points toward the nationalism of the common 
people, in which there is nothing other than the nation’s 
liberation at the centre. The writings in Hindi literature or 
folk memories also focus on political emancipation and 
correspondingly raise the question of social emancipation 
with aplomb, in which the issue of women and Dalit 
emancipation comes up prominently. The images of 
nationalism created during the Indian Independence 
movement have been deeply discussed and debated by 
historians and intellectuals in many fields. That is why this 
period of Indian history is seen as a foundation of the Indian 
nation on which India, after 1947, was built. This India is as 
democratic and secular as it should be in the international 
arena and whose collective consciousness is centred on the 
Indian tradition of knowledge and thought process.           ?
References
1. Swapna, Bihar Bandhu, 13 October , 1881
2.  Kashganj Ka Khwaab, 1921; confiscated Urdu Pamphlets, No. 141, 
India Office Library, London
Endnotes
1. P . C. Joshi, ed.: 2007; Rebellion 1857; National Book Trust, India, Delhi.
2. Rashmi Choudhary; 2012; Bharateey Raashtravaad Ka Nimnavargeey 
Prasang; Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi.
3. Devendra Choubey, Badrinarayan and Hitendra Patel; 2008; 1857: 
Bhaarat Ka Pahala Mukti Sangharsh; Prakaahan Sansthan, Delhi.
4. Shahid Amin and Gyanendra Pandey; 1995 & 2002; Nimnavargeey 
Prasang, Bhaag Ek Aur Do; Raajakamal Prakashan, Delhi.
5. S. N. R. Rizvi; 2021; The Rebel World of 1857; Kalpaz Publication, 
Delhi.
6. Badrinarayan, Rashmi Choudhary and Sanjay Nath; 2010; 1857 Ka 
Mahaasangraam; Aadhaar Prakashan, Delhi.
7. Rashmi Choudhary and Devendra Choubey; 2016; Aadhunik Bharat 
Ke Itihaas Lekhan Ke Kuchh Sahityik Srot; Ganapat Teli, Devina 
Akshayavar & Khushi Patanaayak, Prakashan Sansthan, Delhi.
8. Jagmal Singh; 2020; Poorvottar Ki Janajaateey Krantiyaan; 
Raashtreey Pustak Nyaas, Bharat; Delhi.
YOJANA   August 2022 47
espite being a geographic entity, India, 
before the advent of the East India 
Company, acutely lacked in having a sense 
of nationalism as its inhabitants considered 
their own States of residence, as their country and not 
India as a whole. The number of such States was beyond 
six hundred at that point of time. With the decline of 
the Mughal Empire and direct/indirect meddling of the 
Company, Indian Princely States started falling prey to 
the Company’s diplomacy and military advances that 
culminated into British rule in India.
Much before the First War of Independence of 
1857, Urdu poets had started expressing their anguish 
over the decline of rule of law, rampant corruption and 
loss of time testing human values. 
They composed the poetic genre 
‘Shahr-Aashob’ (urban unrest) 
not only to record socio-political 
ground realities of their time but 
also to express their indignation at 
the political situation that prevailed. 
‘Shahr-Aashob’, penned by poets 
like Shah Hatim, Ashraf Ali Fughan, 
Mohammad Rafi Sauda, Mir Taqi 
Mir, took lead in commenting on 
the disturbing political situation 
and ventured to criticise the ruling 
Princes as well. 
A century before 1857, with the 
defeat of Shah Alam II, Mir Qasim 
and the Wazir of Awadh, Shuja-ud-
Daula, in the Battle of Plassey in 
1757, and Tipu Sultan’s defeat and 
death in the Battle of Srirangapatna 
in 1799, nationalism had started 
taking shape in Urdu poetry. Many 
poems were written to mourn the 
death of Tipu Sultan. 
The First War of Independence of 
1857 became tumultuous as it stirred 
Role of Urdu Literature
Dr Naresh
The author is a former Professor of Modern Literature at Panjab University & Chairman, Chandigarh Academy of Letters.
Email: dr.naresh.chd@gmail.com
Jashn-e-azadi D
the consciousness of Urdu poets whose expression of 
indignation at the Company rules resulted in destroying 
local industries and meddling with religious matters 
of the land. The defeat of Indian revolutionaries at 
the hands of the British led to an era of nationalism. 
Many Urdu poets who were composing poetry to induce 
courage and valour of self-sacrifice were hanged by 
the British. These included, among others, Rahim-ud-
Din Ejad, Zafaryab Rasikh Dehlvi, Ghazanfar Sayeed, 
Aziz Dehlavi, Suroor Gurganvi, Ghyas-ud-Din Sharar, 
Qamar-ud-Din Shaida, Hadi Sambhali and Ismail Fauq. 
Quite a few poets did not write revolutionary 
poetry, but jumped into the battlefield against the 
British. Poet Aziz Moradabadi brandished his sword 
Some of the Urdu publications of DPD
48 YOJANA   August 2022
along with General Bakht Khan on 
the battleground. Ruswa Badauni was 
another Urdu poet to follow Aziz by 
sacrificing his life for the cause of 
motherland by fighting against the 
British. 
Towards the end of the 19
th
 
century, Indian National Congress 
emerged as a major political party 
leading the freedom movement. 
Urdu writers and journalists boosted 
up the movement through their 
pen. Figures such as Munshi Sajjad 
Hussain, Mirza Machhu Beg, Ratan 
Nath Sarshar, Tribhuvan Nath Sapru 
Hijr, Brij Narayan Chakbast, Altaf Hussain Hali, Akbar 
Allahabadi and Ismail Merathi established themselves as 
literary protagonists of Indian culture and independence. 
In 1906, Indian National Congress, in its Calcutta 
session, raised the demand for Swaraj (self-rule) 
and for boycotting of foreign items. The same year, 
revolutionary movement took off in Bengal that spread 
over North India in a short span. Poets like Hasrat 
Mohani, Chakbast, Zafar Ali Khan, Barq Dehlavi fanned 
nationalism and Maulana Shibli vehemently attacked 
the British. Urdu poets continued with their tirade 
against the British during Home Rule Agitation, Rowlatt 
Act (1918) and Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919) and 
poets like Mohd. Ali Jauhar, Dr Iqbal, Mir Ghulam 
Bhik Nairang, Agha Hashr Kashmiri, and Ehsan Danish 
took forward the march of freedom movement and 
infused unprecedented enthusiasm in general masses. 
During third decade of 20
th
 century, a great number 
of Urdu poets including Tilok Chand Mehroom, Josh 
Malihabadi, Ravish Siddiqi, Hafeez Jalandhari, Mela 
Ram Wafa, Anand Narayan Mulla, Ehsan Danish, Ali 
Jawad Zaidi, Azad Ansari and to name a few, openly 
supported the freedom movement and filled the heart of 
their readers with absolute hatred for the foreign rule.
In 1936, the Progressive Writers’ Movement started, 
which stood firm against the British rule and forcefully 
advocated the cause of national independence. Hundreds 
of poems, short stories, novels and articles appeared in 
Urdu newspapers and magazines, and a galaxy of Urdu 
poets appeared on the literary horizon. Poets such as 
Asrar-ul-Haq Majaz, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Jan Nisar Akhtar, 
Moin Ahsan Jazbi, Makhdoom Mohiuddin, Ali Sardar 
Jafri and Kaifi Azmi added socio-economic problems of 
Indian society to the agenda for independence. 
A bulk of Urdu literature is available against the 
two-nation theory of Muhammad Ali Jinnah and his 
idea of partition. There is no dearth of poems written to 
eulogise national spirit. 
A fervent ebullition for national 
pride did not confine to Urdu 
poetry alone. Urdu prose, rather 
more forcefully, raised its voice of 
indignation and protest against the 
foreign rule. Urdu press, too, was 
agog with editorials and articles on 
the subject. Two such newspapers 
deserve a mention here. These were 
‘Urdu Akhbar’ edited by Maulvi 
Mohammad Baqar and ‘Payam-e-
Azadi’ edited by Azimullah Khan. It 
can easily be understood as to how 
much these papers were impacting 
the Indian minds that the rulers 
looted Baqar Ali’s house and put him to death. The 
British considered it a crime enough to demolish a 
house from where a copy of ‘Payam-e-Azadi’ was 
discovered. 
Articles written by Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan, 
Maulana Hali and Shibli Nomani largely influenced 
their readers towards social awakening and nation 
building. Munshi Premchand, initially under the 
influence of Gandhi and subsequently impressed by 
Progressive Writers’ Movement, was a nationalist to the 
core. His first collection of short stories, titled ‘Soz-e-
Watan’ was banned by the British and its copies were 
confined to be set ablaze. Rashid-ul-Khairi, Azeem 
Beg Chughtai, Sudarshan Faakir, Ali Abbas Husaini, 
Sohail Azeemabadi, and Akhtar Orenvi are other Urdu 
story writers who took forward the message of India’s 
freedom through their writings. 
Next generation of the above mentioned writers 
produced noteworthy Urdu story writers like Saadat 
Hasan Manto, Krishan Chander, Akhtar Ansari, Upender 
Nath Ashk, Hayatullah Ansari, Ismat Chughtai and 
Rajinder Singh Bedi. These writers were indisputable 
in their concept of freedom from the foreign rule and 
building a new secular classless social order. 
Urdu is the language that gave the slogan ‘Inquilab 
Zindabad’ (Long live the revolution) to Indian 
populace. It was Urdu that aired Subhas Chandra 
Bose’s proclamation, ‘Tum mujhe khoon do, main 
tumhe azadi doonga’ (You give me blood, I will give 
you freedom). 
I end this article by quoting an Urdu couplet that 
was popular during our freedom movement: 
“Sarfaroshi ki tamanna ab hamare dil mein hai 
Dekhna hai zor kitna bazoo-e-qatil mein hai”
(Now my heart urges me to pay my head as a 
price for freedom. Let me see how powerful is the  
killer’s hand.)                                                                              ?
In 1936, the Progressive Writers’ 
Movement started, which stood 
firm against the British rule 
and forcefully advocated the 
cause of national independence. 
Hundreds of poems, short 
stories, novels and articles 
appeared in Urdu newspapers 
and magazines, and a galaxy of 
Urdu poets appeared on the 
literary horizon.