Yojana Magazine July 2022 - 2 | Monthly Yojana & Kurukshetra Magazine (English) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


YOJANA   July 2022 17
round 12 per cent of the total tribal population 
in India lives in the North Eastern States. 
But unlike central Indian States, where 
the tribal population is a minority, tribal 
communities constitute more than eighty per cent of the 
State population in Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland. 
Indeed, NER (North Eastern Region) distinguishes itself 
in being home to at least 133 Scheduled Tribe groups, out 
of a total 659 such distinct groups presently identified in 
India.
1
 However, it can be observed that tribal population 
in Tripura declined from 56 per cent in 1951 to less than 
30 per cent in 2001. In Arunachal Pradesh, the tribal 
population declined from 90 per cent in 1951 to less than 
64 per cent in 1991. Bodos, a plain land tribal community 
of Assam have become a minority in many areas of 
Bodoland Territorial Region.
Ecology and Inhabitants 
It is widely known that being disturbed by scuffled 
history and geo-politics, NER has remained backward 
and less-developed region of the Indian subcontinent 
though it covers 7.9 per cent geographical area of the 
country. The region with magnificent hills, deep gorges, 
wandering rivers and rivulets, undulating land, fertile 
valleys and varied flora & fauna presents a splendid 
landscape. Remarkably, it shares as much as 4200 km of 
international boundary with four nations— Bangladesh, 
Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. At the same time, it is 
joined with the rest of India by means of a narrow route 
The North Eastern Milieu
Amlan Biswas
The word ‘tribe’ has a Roman origin that was derived from latin word ‘tribus’ , meaning ‘the poor’ . It 
was used to specify the masses in the Roman society. In the sixteenth century, it gained popularity 
in English usage to denote a community in claim of descent from an ancestor. Subsequently, it 
was used to designate the ‘isolated noble savage community’ which lived in bucolic simplicity, in 
the colonial ethnography and anthropology. Tribal communities in India inhabit all parts of the 
country except the States of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi, and the Union Territories of Chandigarh 
and Puducherry. They constitute 8.6 per cent of India’s total population and are classified into 
about seven hundred communities which includes both ‘major tribes’ and ‘sub-tribes’ . 
MosAic oF tRAditions A
The author is a retired ISS who has worked with the National Sample Survey and Anthropological Survey of India and is presently 
engaged in writing on social and anthropological issues. Email: biswas.aj@gmail.com.
popularly known as the Siliguri corridor or the ‘Chicken’s 
Neck’. The region consists of hills as well as plains. 
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and 
Sikkim could be described as hilly, whereas Assam is 
largely a plain. The topography and climate have always 
worked as powerful constraints and kept the North East 
India a distant geographical region in the country. 
In other words, the North Eastern tribal economies 
are distant and remote from the mainstream national 
economy. Agriculture being the main occupation and 
source of livelihood for the farmers, had been and used to 
be, induced for mono-cropping due to the colonial policy 
of plunders through encouragement of only plantation 
crops, the natural factor of high intensity of the rainfall 
and the socio-economic structures of tribal kinship, in 
this wet, humid and hilly terrain.
Page 2


YOJANA   July 2022 17
round 12 per cent of the total tribal population 
in India lives in the North Eastern States. 
But unlike central Indian States, where 
the tribal population is a minority, tribal 
communities constitute more than eighty per cent of the 
State population in Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland. 
Indeed, NER (North Eastern Region) distinguishes itself 
in being home to at least 133 Scheduled Tribe groups, out 
of a total 659 such distinct groups presently identified in 
India.
1
 However, it can be observed that tribal population 
in Tripura declined from 56 per cent in 1951 to less than 
30 per cent in 2001. In Arunachal Pradesh, the tribal 
population declined from 90 per cent in 1951 to less than 
64 per cent in 1991. Bodos, a plain land tribal community 
of Assam have become a minority in many areas of 
Bodoland Territorial Region.
Ecology and Inhabitants 
It is widely known that being disturbed by scuffled 
history and geo-politics, NER has remained backward 
and less-developed region of the Indian subcontinent 
though it covers 7.9 per cent geographical area of the 
country. The region with magnificent hills, deep gorges, 
wandering rivers and rivulets, undulating land, fertile 
valleys and varied flora & fauna presents a splendid 
landscape. Remarkably, it shares as much as 4200 km of 
international boundary with four nations— Bangladesh, 
Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. At the same time, it is 
joined with the rest of India by means of a narrow route 
The North Eastern Milieu
Amlan Biswas
The word ‘tribe’ has a Roman origin that was derived from latin word ‘tribus’ , meaning ‘the poor’ . It 
was used to specify the masses in the Roman society. In the sixteenth century, it gained popularity 
in English usage to denote a community in claim of descent from an ancestor. Subsequently, it 
was used to designate the ‘isolated noble savage community’ which lived in bucolic simplicity, in 
the colonial ethnography and anthropology. Tribal communities in India inhabit all parts of the 
country except the States of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi, and the Union Territories of Chandigarh 
and Puducherry. They constitute 8.6 per cent of India’s total population and are classified into 
about seven hundred communities which includes both ‘major tribes’ and ‘sub-tribes’ . 
MosAic oF tRAditions A
The author is a retired ISS who has worked with the National Sample Survey and Anthropological Survey of India and is presently 
engaged in writing on social and anthropological issues. Email: biswas.aj@gmail.com.
popularly known as the Siliguri corridor or the ‘Chicken’s 
Neck’. The region consists of hills as well as plains. 
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and 
Sikkim could be described as hilly, whereas Assam is 
largely a plain. The topography and climate have always 
worked as powerful constraints and kept the North East 
India a distant geographical region in the country. 
In other words, the North Eastern tribal economies 
are distant and remote from the mainstream national 
economy. Agriculture being the main occupation and 
source of livelihood for the farmers, had been and used to 
be, induced for mono-cropping due to the colonial policy 
of plunders through encouragement of only plantation 
crops, the natural factor of high intensity of the rainfall 
and the socio-economic structures of tribal kinship, in 
this wet, humid and hilly terrain.
18 YOJANA   July 2022
The intensive cultivation of crops and wide range of 
crop diversification in agriculture has not been the history 
in the region. The monsoon paddy has been the dominant 
field crop. The forest products have been the source of 
food and fuel. Two distinct types of agricultural practice 
in NER may be observed (i) settled agriculture in the 
plains, valleys and gentler slopes and (ii) slash and burn 
cultivation (called jhum cultivation) elsewhere.
2
 Needless 
to say, jhum cultivation is the dominant agricultural 
practice in the hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, 
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland despite restrictions. 
Nowadays, agriculture in the form of plantation has been 
developed instead of jhum cultivation in certain States.
 In the lowland areas of the Brahmaputra and Barak 
valleys, three agricultural systems of rice are followed, 
namely Sali kheti, Ahu kheti, and Bao kheti. These are 
practised over different seasons of the same year, showing 
strategic year-round cultivation in the flood zone.
3
Culture and Tradition
Each system mentioned above 
has its own techniques and methods. 
It depends upon the conditions of 
environment and climate wherein the 
farmer’s traditional knowledge plays an 
important role in the selection of land, 
seeds, time of sowing, transplanting 
the seedlings, harvesting, storing, and 
preserving seeds for the next season. 
This knowledge has been transmitted 
to them from their forefathers through 
oral traditions. That is why the North 
East can be regarded as repository of 
traditional knowledge systems.
NER is often described as the cultural mosaic of 
India being receptacle of diverse tribal communities, 
linguistic, and ethnic identities. On the basis of one or 
the other factor like socio-cultural similarity, linguistic 
affinity, ethnic affiliation and common territory, these 
tribal communities may conveniently be put under certain 
groups like the Boro, the Khasi, the Naga, the Lushei 
Kuki, the Arunachali and others. The tribal communities 
of the North East have their own traditional system of 
governance. Among these, chieftainship is prevalent, 
while others prefer to be ruled by the village council. 
Tradition was the name given to those cultural 
features which, in situation of change, were to be 
continued to be handed on, thought about, not lost.
4
 Each 
society has its own cultural tradition, social system, set of 
values, custom and different colourful mode of festivities 
which are mostly related to agriculture. Few of them may 
be mentioned as Moh-Mol (Tangsa), Mopin & Solung 
(Adi), Oriah (Wancho), Nyokum (Nyishi), Reh (Mishmi), 
Lossar (Monpa), Boori-Boot (Hill Miris) in Arunachal 
Pradesh; Magh Bihu, Bohag Bihu, Ali-Ai-Ligang 
(Mishing), Baikho (Rabha) and Baishagu (Dimasa) and 
others in Assam; Moatsu (Ao), Ngada (Rengma), Monyu 
(Phom), Naknyulum (Chang), Sekrenyi (Angami) and 
Suhkruhnye (Chakhensang) in Nagaland; Lai Haraoba 
dance, Thabal Chongba dance and Raslila and others 
in Manipur; Chapchar Kut, Mim Kut and Cheraw (the 
Bamboo Dance) in Mizoram; Kharchi Puja, Garia Puja, 
Ker Puja and others in Tripura and Wangala Festival 
(Garo), Shad Suk Mynsieum (Khasi) and Behdienkhlam 
(Jaintia), apart from others in Meghalaya.
In socio-political life of tribal communities, 
monarchy and democracy co-exist in principle. The 
members of the tribes are united by the kinship and 
marriage, thus it becomes difficult to differentiate between 
the political and domestic matters. Lineage segmentation 
is the chief principle of the political structure of the tribal 
communities. Tribal communities everywhere have been 
known for far more egalitarian gender relations in their 
societies compared to their non-tribal 
counterparts. The situation in NER is 
broadly in harmony with this larger 
picture. 
Recent Changes 
But the socio-cultural elements of 
the tribal communities are not static; 
rather they are changing for various 
reasons. They are being exposed to 
changing environment of varied nature. 
Accordingly, they take measures to 
adapt themselves to the new, changed 
situation, which is very much evident 
from the eagerness of participation 
NER is often described as the 
cultural mosaic of India being 
receptacle of diverse tribal 
communities, linguistic, and 
ethnic identities. The tribal 
communities of North East 
India have their own traditional 
system of governance. Among 
these, chieftainship is prevalent, 
while others prefer to be ruled 
by the village council.
Page 3


YOJANA   July 2022 17
round 12 per cent of the total tribal population 
in India lives in the North Eastern States. 
But unlike central Indian States, where 
the tribal population is a minority, tribal 
communities constitute more than eighty per cent of the 
State population in Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland. 
Indeed, NER (North Eastern Region) distinguishes itself 
in being home to at least 133 Scheduled Tribe groups, out 
of a total 659 such distinct groups presently identified in 
India.
1
 However, it can be observed that tribal population 
in Tripura declined from 56 per cent in 1951 to less than 
30 per cent in 2001. In Arunachal Pradesh, the tribal 
population declined from 90 per cent in 1951 to less than 
64 per cent in 1991. Bodos, a plain land tribal community 
of Assam have become a minority in many areas of 
Bodoland Territorial Region.
Ecology and Inhabitants 
It is widely known that being disturbed by scuffled 
history and geo-politics, NER has remained backward 
and less-developed region of the Indian subcontinent 
though it covers 7.9 per cent geographical area of the 
country. The region with magnificent hills, deep gorges, 
wandering rivers and rivulets, undulating land, fertile 
valleys and varied flora & fauna presents a splendid 
landscape. Remarkably, it shares as much as 4200 km of 
international boundary with four nations— Bangladesh, 
Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. At the same time, it is 
joined with the rest of India by means of a narrow route 
The North Eastern Milieu
Amlan Biswas
The word ‘tribe’ has a Roman origin that was derived from latin word ‘tribus’ , meaning ‘the poor’ . It 
was used to specify the masses in the Roman society. In the sixteenth century, it gained popularity 
in English usage to denote a community in claim of descent from an ancestor. Subsequently, it 
was used to designate the ‘isolated noble savage community’ which lived in bucolic simplicity, in 
the colonial ethnography and anthropology. Tribal communities in India inhabit all parts of the 
country except the States of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi, and the Union Territories of Chandigarh 
and Puducherry. They constitute 8.6 per cent of India’s total population and are classified into 
about seven hundred communities which includes both ‘major tribes’ and ‘sub-tribes’ . 
MosAic oF tRAditions A
The author is a retired ISS who has worked with the National Sample Survey and Anthropological Survey of India and is presently 
engaged in writing on social and anthropological issues. Email: biswas.aj@gmail.com.
popularly known as the Siliguri corridor or the ‘Chicken’s 
Neck’. The region consists of hills as well as plains. 
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and 
Sikkim could be described as hilly, whereas Assam is 
largely a plain. The topography and climate have always 
worked as powerful constraints and kept the North East 
India a distant geographical region in the country. 
In other words, the North Eastern tribal economies 
are distant and remote from the mainstream national 
economy. Agriculture being the main occupation and 
source of livelihood for the farmers, had been and used to 
be, induced for mono-cropping due to the colonial policy 
of plunders through encouragement of only plantation 
crops, the natural factor of high intensity of the rainfall 
and the socio-economic structures of tribal kinship, in 
this wet, humid and hilly terrain.
18 YOJANA   July 2022
The intensive cultivation of crops and wide range of 
crop diversification in agriculture has not been the history 
in the region. The monsoon paddy has been the dominant 
field crop. The forest products have been the source of 
food and fuel. Two distinct types of agricultural practice 
in NER may be observed (i) settled agriculture in the 
plains, valleys and gentler slopes and (ii) slash and burn 
cultivation (called jhum cultivation) elsewhere.
2
 Needless 
to say, jhum cultivation is the dominant agricultural 
practice in the hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, 
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland despite restrictions. 
Nowadays, agriculture in the form of plantation has been 
developed instead of jhum cultivation in certain States.
 In the lowland areas of the Brahmaputra and Barak 
valleys, three agricultural systems of rice are followed, 
namely Sali kheti, Ahu kheti, and Bao kheti. These are 
practised over different seasons of the same year, showing 
strategic year-round cultivation in the flood zone.
3
Culture and Tradition
Each system mentioned above 
has its own techniques and methods. 
It depends upon the conditions of 
environment and climate wherein the 
farmer’s traditional knowledge plays an 
important role in the selection of land, 
seeds, time of sowing, transplanting 
the seedlings, harvesting, storing, and 
preserving seeds for the next season. 
This knowledge has been transmitted 
to them from their forefathers through 
oral traditions. That is why the North 
East can be regarded as repository of 
traditional knowledge systems.
NER is often described as the cultural mosaic of 
India being receptacle of diverse tribal communities, 
linguistic, and ethnic identities. On the basis of one or 
the other factor like socio-cultural similarity, linguistic 
affinity, ethnic affiliation and common territory, these 
tribal communities may conveniently be put under certain 
groups like the Boro, the Khasi, the Naga, the Lushei 
Kuki, the Arunachali and others. The tribal communities 
of the North East have their own traditional system of 
governance. Among these, chieftainship is prevalent, 
while others prefer to be ruled by the village council. 
Tradition was the name given to those cultural 
features which, in situation of change, were to be 
continued to be handed on, thought about, not lost.
4
 Each 
society has its own cultural tradition, social system, set of 
values, custom and different colourful mode of festivities 
which are mostly related to agriculture. Few of them may 
be mentioned as Moh-Mol (Tangsa), Mopin & Solung 
(Adi), Oriah (Wancho), Nyokum (Nyishi), Reh (Mishmi), 
Lossar (Monpa), Boori-Boot (Hill Miris) in Arunachal 
Pradesh; Magh Bihu, Bohag Bihu, Ali-Ai-Ligang 
(Mishing), Baikho (Rabha) and Baishagu (Dimasa) and 
others in Assam; Moatsu (Ao), Ngada (Rengma), Monyu 
(Phom), Naknyulum (Chang), Sekrenyi (Angami) and 
Suhkruhnye (Chakhensang) in Nagaland; Lai Haraoba 
dance, Thabal Chongba dance and Raslila and others 
in Manipur; Chapchar Kut, Mim Kut and Cheraw (the 
Bamboo Dance) in Mizoram; Kharchi Puja, Garia Puja, 
Ker Puja and others in Tripura and Wangala Festival 
(Garo), Shad Suk Mynsieum (Khasi) and Behdienkhlam 
(Jaintia), apart from others in Meghalaya.
In socio-political life of tribal communities, 
monarchy and democracy co-exist in principle. The 
members of the tribes are united by the kinship and 
marriage, thus it becomes difficult to differentiate between 
the political and domestic matters. Lineage segmentation 
is the chief principle of the political structure of the tribal 
communities. Tribal communities everywhere have been 
known for far more egalitarian gender relations in their 
societies compared to their non-tribal 
counterparts. The situation in NER is 
broadly in harmony with this larger 
picture. 
Recent Changes 
But the socio-cultural elements of 
the tribal communities are not static; 
rather they are changing for various 
reasons. They are being exposed to 
changing environment of varied nature. 
Accordingly, they take measures to 
adapt themselves to the new, changed 
situation, which is very much evident 
from the eagerness of participation 
NER is often described as the 
cultural mosaic of India being 
receptacle of diverse tribal 
communities, linguistic, and 
ethnic identities. The tribal 
communities of North East 
India have their own traditional 
system of governance. Among 
these, chieftainship is prevalent, 
while others prefer to be ruled 
by the village council.
YOJANA   July 2022 19
to the new global order. That is apparent from the socio 
economic indicators like sex ratio, education, infant 
mortality rate or sanitation that reveals some notion of 
aspiration to tear away the grasp of backwardness or 
less development (Table 1). Moreover, recent data from 
standard sample surveys
5 
find that women’s participation 
in decision making was higher even than the Southern 
States.
6
 
As per 2011 Census, sex ratio is highest in Manipur 
(992), followed by Meghalaya (989) and Mizoram (976), 
and lowest in Sikkim (890). The percentage of population 
living in rural area is highest in Assam (85.92) and lowest 
in Mizoram (48.49). Infant Mortality Rate was recorded 
highest in Assam (54), followed by Meghalaya (47) and 
Mizoram (35). It is the lowest in Manipur (10).
Figures for sanitation facilities in their dwellings also 
reflect better position than the overall 
country indicators. The dependence 
on rural area is also evident from the 
figures in Table 1. 
Another indicator for holistic 
development of the area, whether it is 
District or State, indicating Sustainable 
Development Goals (SDGs) has been 
made available from 2018. NITI 
Aayog has been publishing the SDG 
India Index annually since 2018. 
The third edition of the NITI Aayog 
SDG India Index (2020-21) computes 
goal-wise scores on the 16 SDGs for 
each State and UT, and a qualitative 
assessment on Goal 17, covering 17 
parameters. 
Overall State and UT scores are generated from 
goal-wise scores to measure aggregate performance of 
the sub-national unit based on its performance across 
the 16 SDGs. These scores range between 0–100, with 
States/UTs being categorised as Aspirant (score 0-49), 
Performer (score 50-64), Front Runner (65-99), and 
Achiever (score 100) based on their score. Amongst 
States, additions to the Front Runner category in 2020-21 
included Uttarakhand, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Mizoram, 
Punjab, Haryana, and Tripura. Surprisingly, two States 
from North Eastern Region, namely Mizoram and Tripura 
credited their position in the highest rank, i.e., Front 
Runner category in 2020-21.
Special attention is being paid to achievement of 
SDGs in the North East, with a North Eastern Region 
(NER) District SDG Index 2021-22 developed by NITI 
Aayog. The Index is constructed from 
84 indicators and covers 15 global 
goals, 50 SDG targets, and 103 districts 
in the eight States of NER. The index 
will facilitate in identifying crucial 
gaps and inform interventions to fast-
track progress towards achieving the 
SDGs in the region. We can observe 
the district-wise overall performance 
in the NITI Aayog NER District SDG 
Index, 2021-22. The score for the 103 
districts range from 75.87 in East 
Sikkim to 53 in Kiphire (Nagaland). 
There are 64 districts in the Front 
Runner category and 39 districts in 
the Performer category. All districts 
of Sikkim and Tripura fall in the Front 
Runner category.
Globalisation imposes a 
homogeneous consumerist 
culture and value system 
on each society. The law of 
dynamics is universally applied 
to every society and tribal 
society is no exception.
Thus, the tribal communities’ 
exposure to the forces of 
change, both indigenous 
and exogenous, has serious 
implications on the lifestyle 
and culture of the tribal 
communities consequently.
Table 1: Select Socio-economic Indicators of North East
States Demographic Health Education
Sex Ratio 
(2011)
1
Rural Popula-
tion (%) (2011)
1
Infant mortality 
rate (%) (2013)
2
Sanitation Facili-
ties (%) (2011)
3
Literacy rate 
(%) (2011)
1
Arunachal Pradesh 938 77.33 32 61.97 65.38
Assam 958 85.92 54 64.89 72.19
Manipur 992 69.79 10 89.30 79.21
Meghalaya 989 79.92 47 62.91 74.43
Mizoram 976 48.49 35 91.91 91.33
Nagaland 931 71.03 18 76.52 79.55
Sikkim 890 75.03 22 87.20 81.42
Tripura 960 73.03 26 86.04 87.22
Overall Country 
Indicators
940 68.84 40 46.92 74.04
Sources: 1. Government of India, 2011; 2. SRS, 2014; 3. Measured in Percentage of Households. Govt of India 
(2008-09) Housing Condition and Amenities in India (65
th 
Round, NSSO Report No. 535).
Page 4


YOJANA   July 2022 17
round 12 per cent of the total tribal population 
in India lives in the North Eastern States. 
But unlike central Indian States, where 
the tribal population is a minority, tribal 
communities constitute more than eighty per cent of the 
State population in Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland. 
Indeed, NER (North Eastern Region) distinguishes itself 
in being home to at least 133 Scheduled Tribe groups, out 
of a total 659 such distinct groups presently identified in 
India.
1
 However, it can be observed that tribal population 
in Tripura declined from 56 per cent in 1951 to less than 
30 per cent in 2001. In Arunachal Pradesh, the tribal 
population declined from 90 per cent in 1951 to less than 
64 per cent in 1991. Bodos, a plain land tribal community 
of Assam have become a minority in many areas of 
Bodoland Territorial Region.
Ecology and Inhabitants 
It is widely known that being disturbed by scuffled 
history and geo-politics, NER has remained backward 
and less-developed region of the Indian subcontinent 
though it covers 7.9 per cent geographical area of the 
country. The region with magnificent hills, deep gorges, 
wandering rivers and rivulets, undulating land, fertile 
valleys and varied flora & fauna presents a splendid 
landscape. Remarkably, it shares as much as 4200 km of 
international boundary with four nations— Bangladesh, 
Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. At the same time, it is 
joined with the rest of India by means of a narrow route 
The North Eastern Milieu
Amlan Biswas
The word ‘tribe’ has a Roman origin that was derived from latin word ‘tribus’ , meaning ‘the poor’ . It 
was used to specify the masses in the Roman society. In the sixteenth century, it gained popularity 
in English usage to denote a community in claim of descent from an ancestor. Subsequently, it 
was used to designate the ‘isolated noble savage community’ which lived in bucolic simplicity, in 
the colonial ethnography and anthropology. Tribal communities in India inhabit all parts of the 
country except the States of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi, and the Union Territories of Chandigarh 
and Puducherry. They constitute 8.6 per cent of India’s total population and are classified into 
about seven hundred communities which includes both ‘major tribes’ and ‘sub-tribes’ . 
MosAic oF tRAditions A
The author is a retired ISS who has worked with the National Sample Survey and Anthropological Survey of India and is presently 
engaged in writing on social and anthropological issues. Email: biswas.aj@gmail.com.
popularly known as the Siliguri corridor or the ‘Chicken’s 
Neck’. The region consists of hills as well as plains. 
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and 
Sikkim could be described as hilly, whereas Assam is 
largely a plain. The topography and climate have always 
worked as powerful constraints and kept the North East 
India a distant geographical region in the country. 
In other words, the North Eastern tribal economies 
are distant and remote from the mainstream national 
economy. Agriculture being the main occupation and 
source of livelihood for the farmers, had been and used to 
be, induced for mono-cropping due to the colonial policy 
of plunders through encouragement of only plantation 
crops, the natural factor of high intensity of the rainfall 
and the socio-economic structures of tribal kinship, in 
this wet, humid and hilly terrain.
18 YOJANA   July 2022
The intensive cultivation of crops and wide range of 
crop diversification in agriculture has not been the history 
in the region. The monsoon paddy has been the dominant 
field crop. The forest products have been the source of 
food and fuel. Two distinct types of agricultural practice 
in NER may be observed (i) settled agriculture in the 
plains, valleys and gentler slopes and (ii) slash and burn 
cultivation (called jhum cultivation) elsewhere.
2
 Needless 
to say, jhum cultivation is the dominant agricultural 
practice in the hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, 
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland despite restrictions. 
Nowadays, agriculture in the form of plantation has been 
developed instead of jhum cultivation in certain States.
 In the lowland areas of the Brahmaputra and Barak 
valleys, three agricultural systems of rice are followed, 
namely Sali kheti, Ahu kheti, and Bao kheti. These are 
practised over different seasons of the same year, showing 
strategic year-round cultivation in the flood zone.
3
Culture and Tradition
Each system mentioned above 
has its own techniques and methods. 
It depends upon the conditions of 
environment and climate wherein the 
farmer’s traditional knowledge plays an 
important role in the selection of land, 
seeds, time of sowing, transplanting 
the seedlings, harvesting, storing, and 
preserving seeds for the next season. 
This knowledge has been transmitted 
to them from their forefathers through 
oral traditions. That is why the North 
East can be regarded as repository of 
traditional knowledge systems.
NER is often described as the cultural mosaic of 
India being receptacle of diverse tribal communities, 
linguistic, and ethnic identities. On the basis of one or 
the other factor like socio-cultural similarity, linguistic 
affinity, ethnic affiliation and common territory, these 
tribal communities may conveniently be put under certain 
groups like the Boro, the Khasi, the Naga, the Lushei 
Kuki, the Arunachali and others. The tribal communities 
of the North East have their own traditional system of 
governance. Among these, chieftainship is prevalent, 
while others prefer to be ruled by the village council. 
Tradition was the name given to those cultural 
features which, in situation of change, were to be 
continued to be handed on, thought about, not lost.
4
 Each 
society has its own cultural tradition, social system, set of 
values, custom and different colourful mode of festivities 
which are mostly related to agriculture. Few of them may 
be mentioned as Moh-Mol (Tangsa), Mopin & Solung 
(Adi), Oriah (Wancho), Nyokum (Nyishi), Reh (Mishmi), 
Lossar (Monpa), Boori-Boot (Hill Miris) in Arunachal 
Pradesh; Magh Bihu, Bohag Bihu, Ali-Ai-Ligang 
(Mishing), Baikho (Rabha) and Baishagu (Dimasa) and 
others in Assam; Moatsu (Ao), Ngada (Rengma), Monyu 
(Phom), Naknyulum (Chang), Sekrenyi (Angami) and 
Suhkruhnye (Chakhensang) in Nagaland; Lai Haraoba 
dance, Thabal Chongba dance and Raslila and others 
in Manipur; Chapchar Kut, Mim Kut and Cheraw (the 
Bamboo Dance) in Mizoram; Kharchi Puja, Garia Puja, 
Ker Puja and others in Tripura and Wangala Festival 
(Garo), Shad Suk Mynsieum (Khasi) and Behdienkhlam 
(Jaintia), apart from others in Meghalaya.
In socio-political life of tribal communities, 
monarchy and democracy co-exist in principle. The 
members of the tribes are united by the kinship and 
marriage, thus it becomes difficult to differentiate between 
the political and domestic matters. Lineage segmentation 
is the chief principle of the political structure of the tribal 
communities. Tribal communities everywhere have been 
known for far more egalitarian gender relations in their 
societies compared to their non-tribal 
counterparts. The situation in NER is 
broadly in harmony with this larger 
picture. 
Recent Changes 
But the socio-cultural elements of 
the tribal communities are not static; 
rather they are changing for various 
reasons. They are being exposed to 
changing environment of varied nature. 
Accordingly, they take measures to 
adapt themselves to the new, changed 
situation, which is very much evident 
from the eagerness of participation 
NER is often described as the 
cultural mosaic of India being 
receptacle of diverse tribal 
communities, linguistic, and 
ethnic identities. The tribal 
communities of North East 
India have their own traditional 
system of governance. Among 
these, chieftainship is prevalent, 
while others prefer to be ruled 
by the village council.
YOJANA   July 2022 19
to the new global order. That is apparent from the socio 
economic indicators like sex ratio, education, infant 
mortality rate or sanitation that reveals some notion of 
aspiration to tear away the grasp of backwardness or 
less development (Table 1). Moreover, recent data from 
standard sample surveys
5 
find that women’s participation 
in decision making was higher even than the Southern 
States.
6
 
As per 2011 Census, sex ratio is highest in Manipur 
(992), followed by Meghalaya (989) and Mizoram (976), 
and lowest in Sikkim (890). The percentage of population 
living in rural area is highest in Assam (85.92) and lowest 
in Mizoram (48.49). Infant Mortality Rate was recorded 
highest in Assam (54), followed by Meghalaya (47) and 
Mizoram (35). It is the lowest in Manipur (10).
Figures for sanitation facilities in their dwellings also 
reflect better position than the overall 
country indicators. The dependence 
on rural area is also evident from the 
figures in Table 1. 
Another indicator for holistic 
development of the area, whether it is 
District or State, indicating Sustainable 
Development Goals (SDGs) has been 
made available from 2018. NITI 
Aayog has been publishing the SDG 
India Index annually since 2018. 
The third edition of the NITI Aayog 
SDG India Index (2020-21) computes 
goal-wise scores on the 16 SDGs for 
each State and UT, and a qualitative 
assessment on Goal 17, covering 17 
parameters. 
Overall State and UT scores are generated from 
goal-wise scores to measure aggregate performance of 
the sub-national unit based on its performance across 
the 16 SDGs. These scores range between 0–100, with 
States/UTs being categorised as Aspirant (score 0-49), 
Performer (score 50-64), Front Runner (65-99), and 
Achiever (score 100) based on their score. Amongst 
States, additions to the Front Runner category in 2020-21 
included Uttarakhand, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Mizoram, 
Punjab, Haryana, and Tripura. Surprisingly, two States 
from North Eastern Region, namely Mizoram and Tripura 
credited their position in the highest rank, i.e., Front 
Runner category in 2020-21.
Special attention is being paid to achievement of 
SDGs in the North East, with a North Eastern Region 
(NER) District SDG Index 2021-22 developed by NITI 
Aayog. The Index is constructed from 
84 indicators and covers 15 global 
goals, 50 SDG targets, and 103 districts 
in the eight States of NER. The index 
will facilitate in identifying crucial 
gaps and inform interventions to fast-
track progress towards achieving the 
SDGs in the region. We can observe 
the district-wise overall performance 
in the NITI Aayog NER District SDG 
Index, 2021-22. The score for the 103 
districts range from 75.87 in East 
Sikkim to 53 in Kiphire (Nagaland). 
There are 64 districts in the Front 
Runner category and 39 districts in 
the Performer category. All districts 
of Sikkim and Tripura fall in the Front 
Runner category.
Globalisation imposes a 
homogeneous consumerist 
culture and value system 
on each society. The law of 
dynamics is universally applied 
to every society and tribal 
society is no exception.
Thus, the tribal communities’ 
exposure to the forces of 
change, both indigenous 
and exogenous, has serious 
implications on the lifestyle 
and culture of the tribal 
communities consequently.
Table 1: Select Socio-economic Indicators of North East
States Demographic Health Education
Sex Ratio 
(2011)
1
Rural Popula-
tion (%) (2011)
1
Infant mortality 
rate (%) (2013)
2
Sanitation Facili-
ties (%) (2011)
3
Literacy rate 
(%) (2011)
1
Arunachal Pradesh 938 77.33 32 61.97 65.38
Assam 958 85.92 54 64.89 72.19
Manipur 992 69.79 10 89.30 79.21
Meghalaya 989 79.92 47 62.91 74.43
Mizoram 976 48.49 35 91.91 91.33
Nagaland 931 71.03 18 76.52 79.55
Sikkim 890 75.03 22 87.20 81.42
Tripura 960 73.03 26 86.04 87.22
Overall Country 
Indicators
940 68.84 40 46.92 74.04
Sources: 1. Government of India, 2011; 2. SRS, 2014; 3. Measured in Percentage of Households. Govt of India 
(2008-09) Housing Condition and Amenities in India (65
th 
Round, NSSO Report No. 535).
20 YOJANA   July 2022
Globalisation has serious implications on culture 
of the tribal communities. It imposes a homogeneous 
consumerist culture and value system on each society. 
The law of dynamics is universally applied to every 
society and tribal society is no exception. Thus, the 
tribal communities’ exposure to the forces of change, 
both indigenous and exogenous, has serious implications 
on the lifestyle and culture of the tribal communities 
consequently.
Though agriculture, shifting cultivation in 
particular, continues to be a prominent means of 
livelihood for many, their means of livelihood tends to 
change from subsistence agricultural income towards 
diversified modern market-oriented employment and 
economy. Sources of income have been diversified in 
terms of different occupation that happens to be made 
available as a result of various development initiatives. 
Modern education plays a vital role in changing the 
means of livelihood. This change is associated with 
an increase of per capita income and educational level 
systematically. Above all, having no further scope of 
further details, germination of renouncing statement 
about the term ‘backward and less developed’ may 
be perceived with all humility, though its effect and 
impact on the tribal communities of the NER may be 
keenly observed.                                                            ?
References
1. Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India.
2. Government of India, 1981.
3. Hazarika, Manjil- Man and Environment in Northeast India: An 
ecological Perspective
4. Claude Levi-Strauss.
5. National Family Health Survey
6. IIPS and ORC Macro, 2007.
Endnotes
1. Ansari, Mahmood- Tribal Economies in Assam: A Study of 
Northeastern India.
2. Census of India- Census 2011.
3. MHRD, Govt. of India- Tribal Culture of India.
4. NITI Aayog- North Eastern Region District SDG Index & 
Dashboard, Baseline Report 2021-22.
5. NITI Aayog- SDG India Index & Dashboard, Baseline Report 
2020-21.
6. Sengupta, Sarthak- (ed.) Tribal Situation in North East  
India.
7. Srivastava, Vinay Kumar- Socio-economic Characteristics of 
Tribal Communities That Call Themselves Hindu.
8. Xaxa, Virginius- Tribes and Social Exclusion.
 
  
 
    
 
  
 
  
  
  
 
  
     
  
  
  
        
 
  
Page 5


YOJANA   July 2022 17
round 12 per cent of the total tribal population 
in India lives in the North Eastern States. 
But unlike central Indian States, where 
the tribal population is a minority, tribal 
communities constitute more than eighty per cent of the 
State population in Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland. 
Indeed, NER (North Eastern Region) distinguishes itself 
in being home to at least 133 Scheduled Tribe groups, out 
of a total 659 such distinct groups presently identified in 
India.
1
 However, it can be observed that tribal population 
in Tripura declined from 56 per cent in 1951 to less than 
30 per cent in 2001. In Arunachal Pradesh, the tribal 
population declined from 90 per cent in 1951 to less than 
64 per cent in 1991. Bodos, a plain land tribal community 
of Assam have become a minority in many areas of 
Bodoland Territorial Region.
Ecology and Inhabitants 
It is widely known that being disturbed by scuffled 
history and geo-politics, NER has remained backward 
and less-developed region of the Indian subcontinent 
though it covers 7.9 per cent geographical area of the 
country. The region with magnificent hills, deep gorges, 
wandering rivers and rivulets, undulating land, fertile 
valleys and varied flora & fauna presents a splendid 
landscape. Remarkably, it shares as much as 4200 km of 
international boundary with four nations— Bangladesh, 
Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. At the same time, it is 
joined with the rest of India by means of a narrow route 
The North Eastern Milieu
Amlan Biswas
The word ‘tribe’ has a Roman origin that was derived from latin word ‘tribus’ , meaning ‘the poor’ . It 
was used to specify the masses in the Roman society. In the sixteenth century, it gained popularity 
in English usage to denote a community in claim of descent from an ancestor. Subsequently, it 
was used to designate the ‘isolated noble savage community’ which lived in bucolic simplicity, in 
the colonial ethnography and anthropology. Tribal communities in India inhabit all parts of the 
country except the States of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi, and the Union Territories of Chandigarh 
and Puducherry. They constitute 8.6 per cent of India’s total population and are classified into 
about seven hundred communities which includes both ‘major tribes’ and ‘sub-tribes’ . 
MosAic oF tRAditions A
The author is a retired ISS who has worked with the National Sample Survey and Anthropological Survey of India and is presently 
engaged in writing on social and anthropological issues. Email: biswas.aj@gmail.com.
popularly known as the Siliguri corridor or the ‘Chicken’s 
Neck’. The region consists of hills as well as plains. 
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and 
Sikkim could be described as hilly, whereas Assam is 
largely a plain. The topography and climate have always 
worked as powerful constraints and kept the North East 
India a distant geographical region in the country. 
In other words, the North Eastern tribal economies 
are distant and remote from the mainstream national 
economy. Agriculture being the main occupation and 
source of livelihood for the farmers, had been and used to 
be, induced for mono-cropping due to the colonial policy 
of plunders through encouragement of only plantation 
crops, the natural factor of high intensity of the rainfall 
and the socio-economic structures of tribal kinship, in 
this wet, humid and hilly terrain.
18 YOJANA   July 2022
The intensive cultivation of crops and wide range of 
crop diversification in agriculture has not been the history 
in the region. The monsoon paddy has been the dominant 
field crop. The forest products have been the source of 
food and fuel. Two distinct types of agricultural practice 
in NER may be observed (i) settled agriculture in the 
plains, valleys and gentler slopes and (ii) slash and burn 
cultivation (called jhum cultivation) elsewhere.
2
 Needless 
to say, jhum cultivation is the dominant agricultural 
practice in the hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, 
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland despite restrictions. 
Nowadays, agriculture in the form of plantation has been 
developed instead of jhum cultivation in certain States.
 In the lowland areas of the Brahmaputra and Barak 
valleys, three agricultural systems of rice are followed, 
namely Sali kheti, Ahu kheti, and Bao kheti. These are 
practised over different seasons of the same year, showing 
strategic year-round cultivation in the flood zone.
3
Culture and Tradition
Each system mentioned above 
has its own techniques and methods. 
It depends upon the conditions of 
environment and climate wherein the 
farmer’s traditional knowledge plays an 
important role in the selection of land, 
seeds, time of sowing, transplanting 
the seedlings, harvesting, storing, and 
preserving seeds for the next season. 
This knowledge has been transmitted 
to them from their forefathers through 
oral traditions. That is why the North 
East can be regarded as repository of 
traditional knowledge systems.
NER is often described as the cultural mosaic of 
India being receptacle of diverse tribal communities, 
linguistic, and ethnic identities. On the basis of one or 
the other factor like socio-cultural similarity, linguistic 
affinity, ethnic affiliation and common territory, these 
tribal communities may conveniently be put under certain 
groups like the Boro, the Khasi, the Naga, the Lushei 
Kuki, the Arunachali and others. The tribal communities 
of the North East have their own traditional system of 
governance. Among these, chieftainship is prevalent, 
while others prefer to be ruled by the village council. 
Tradition was the name given to those cultural 
features which, in situation of change, were to be 
continued to be handed on, thought about, not lost.
4
 Each 
society has its own cultural tradition, social system, set of 
values, custom and different colourful mode of festivities 
which are mostly related to agriculture. Few of them may 
be mentioned as Moh-Mol (Tangsa), Mopin & Solung 
(Adi), Oriah (Wancho), Nyokum (Nyishi), Reh (Mishmi), 
Lossar (Monpa), Boori-Boot (Hill Miris) in Arunachal 
Pradesh; Magh Bihu, Bohag Bihu, Ali-Ai-Ligang 
(Mishing), Baikho (Rabha) and Baishagu (Dimasa) and 
others in Assam; Moatsu (Ao), Ngada (Rengma), Monyu 
(Phom), Naknyulum (Chang), Sekrenyi (Angami) and 
Suhkruhnye (Chakhensang) in Nagaland; Lai Haraoba 
dance, Thabal Chongba dance and Raslila and others 
in Manipur; Chapchar Kut, Mim Kut and Cheraw (the 
Bamboo Dance) in Mizoram; Kharchi Puja, Garia Puja, 
Ker Puja and others in Tripura and Wangala Festival 
(Garo), Shad Suk Mynsieum (Khasi) and Behdienkhlam 
(Jaintia), apart from others in Meghalaya.
In socio-political life of tribal communities, 
monarchy and democracy co-exist in principle. The 
members of the tribes are united by the kinship and 
marriage, thus it becomes difficult to differentiate between 
the political and domestic matters. Lineage segmentation 
is the chief principle of the political structure of the tribal 
communities. Tribal communities everywhere have been 
known for far more egalitarian gender relations in their 
societies compared to their non-tribal 
counterparts. The situation in NER is 
broadly in harmony with this larger 
picture. 
Recent Changes 
But the socio-cultural elements of 
the tribal communities are not static; 
rather they are changing for various 
reasons. They are being exposed to 
changing environment of varied nature. 
Accordingly, they take measures to 
adapt themselves to the new, changed 
situation, which is very much evident 
from the eagerness of participation 
NER is often described as the 
cultural mosaic of India being 
receptacle of diverse tribal 
communities, linguistic, and 
ethnic identities. The tribal 
communities of North East 
India have their own traditional 
system of governance. Among 
these, chieftainship is prevalent, 
while others prefer to be ruled 
by the village council.
YOJANA   July 2022 19
to the new global order. That is apparent from the socio 
economic indicators like sex ratio, education, infant 
mortality rate or sanitation that reveals some notion of 
aspiration to tear away the grasp of backwardness or 
less development (Table 1). Moreover, recent data from 
standard sample surveys
5 
find that women’s participation 
in decision making was higher even than the Southern 
States.
6
 
As per 2011 Census, sex ratio is highest in Manipur 
(992), followed by Meghalaya (989) and Mizoram (976), 
and lowest in Sikkim (890). The percentage of population 
living in rural area is highest in Assam (85.92) and lowest 
in Mizoram (48.49). Infant Mortality Rate was recorded 
highest in Assam (54), followed by Meghalaya (47) and 
Mizoram (35). It is the lowest in Manipur (10).
Figures for sanitation facilities in their dwellings also 
reflect better position than the overall 
country indicators. The dependence 
on rural area is also evident from the 
figures in Table 1. 
Another indicator for holistic 
development of the area, whether it is 
District or State, indicating Sustainable 
Development Goals (SDGs) has been 
made available from 2018. NITI 
Aayog has been publishing the SDG 
India Index annually since 2018. 
The third edition of the NITI Aayog 
SDG India Index (2020-21) computes 
goal-wise scores on the 16 SDGs for 
each State and UT, and a qualitative 
assessment on Goal 17, covering 17 
parameters. 
Overall State and UT scores are generated from 
goal-wise scores to measure aggregate performance of 
the sub-national unit based on its performance across 
the 16 SDGs. These scores range between 0–100, with 
States/UTs being categorised as Aspirant (score 0-49), 
Performer (score 50-64), Front Runner (65-99), and 
Achiever (score 100) based on their score. Amongst 
States, additions to the Front Runner category in 2020-21 
included Uttarakhand, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Mizoram, 
Punjab, Haryana, and Tripura. Surprisingly, two States 
from North Eastern Region, namely Mizoram and Tripura 
credited their position in the highest rank, i.e., Front 
Runner category in 2020-21.
Special attention is being paid to achievement of 
SDGs in the North East, with a North Eastern Region 
(NER) District SDG Index 2021-22 developed by NITI 
Aayog. The Index is constructed from 
84 indicators and covers 15 global 
goals, 50 SDG targets, and 103 districts 
in the eight States of NER. The index 
will facilitate in identifying crucial 
gaps and inform interventions to fast-
track progress towards achieving the 
SDGs in the region. We can observe 
the district-wise overall performance 
in the NITI Aayog NER District SDG 
Index, 2021-22. The score for the 103 
districts range from 75.87 in East 
Sikkim to 53 in Kiphire (Nagaland). 
There are 64 districts in the Front 
Runner category and 39 districts in 
the Performer category. All districts 
of Sikkim and Tripura fall in the Front 
Runner category.
Globalisation imposes a 
homogeneous consumerist 
culture and value system 
on each society. The law of 
dynamics is universally applied 
to every society and tribal 
society is no exception.
Thus, the tribal communities’ 
exposure to the forces of 
change, both indigenous 
and exogenous, has serious 
implications on the lifestyle 
and culture of the tribal 
communities consequently.
Table 1: Select Socio-economic Indicators of North East
States Demographic Health Education
Sex Ratio 
(2011)
1
Rural Popula-
tion (%) (2011)
1
Infant mortality 
rate (%) (2013)
2
Sanitation Facili-
ties (%) (2011)
3
Literacy rate 
(%) (2011)
1
Arunachal Pradesh 938 77.33 32 61.97 65.38
Assam 958 85.92 54 64.89 72.19
Manipur 992 69.79 10 89.30 79.21
Meghalaya 989 79.92 47 62.91 74.43
Mizoram 976 48.49 35 91.91 91.33
Nagaland 931 71.03 18 76.52 79.55
Sikkim 890 75.03 22 87.20 81.42
Tripura 960 73.03 26 86.04 87.22
Overall Country 
Indicators
940 68.84 40 46.92 74.04
Sources: 1. Government of India, 2011; 2. SRS, 2014; 3. Measured in Percentage of Households. Govt of India 
(2008-09) Housing Condition and Amenities in India (65
th 
Round, NSSO Report No. 535).
20 YOJANA   July 2022
Globalisation has serious implications on culture 
of the tribal communities. It imposes a homogeneous 
consumerist culture and value system on each society. 
The law of dynamics is universally applied to every 
society and tribal society is no exception. Thus, the 
tribal communities’ exposure to the forces of change, 
both indigenous and exogenous, has serious implications 
on the lifestyle and culture of the tribal communities 
consequently.
Though agriculture, shifting cultivation in 
particular, continues to be a prominent means of 
livelihood for many, their means of livelihood tends to 
change from subsistence agricultural income towards 
diversified modern market-oriented employment and 
economy. Sources of income have been diversified in 
terms of different occupation that happens to be made 
available as a result of various development initiatives. 
Modern education plays a vital role in changing the 
means of livelihood. This change is associated with 
an increase of per capita income and educational level 
systematically. Above all, having no further scope of 
further details, germination of renouncing statement 
about the term ‘backward and less developed’ may 
be perceived with all humility, though its effect and 
impact on the tribal communities of the NER may be 
keenly observed.                                                            ?
References
1. Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India.
2. Government of India, 1981.
3. Hazarika, Manjil- Man and Environment in Northeast India: An 
ecological Perspective
4. Claude Levi-Strauss.
5. National Family Health Survey
6. IIPS and ORC Macro, 2007.
Endnotes
1. Ansari, Mahmood- Tribal Economies in Assam: A Study of 
Northeastern India.
2. Census of India- Census 2011.
3. MHRD, Govt. of India- Tribal Culture of India.
4. NITI Aayog- North Eastern Region District SDG Index & 
Dashboard, Baseline Report 2021-22.
5. NITI Aayog- SDG India Index & Dashboard, Baseline Report 
2020-21.
6. Sengupta, Sarthak- (ed.) Tribal Situation in North East  
India.
7. Srivastava, Vinay Kumar- Socio-economic Characteristics of 
Tribal Communities That Call Themselves Hindu.
8. Xaxa, Virginius- Tribes and Social Exclusion.
 
  
 
    
 
  
 
  
  
  
 
  
     
  
  
  
        
 
  
YOJANA   July 2022 23
s per the 2011 Census, the total population in 
the State was 604.39 lakh of which the tribal 
population, accounting for 14.76% of the 
total population, was 89.17 lakh. Since 2001, 
the literacy rate has improved for the tribal communities. 
The gap reduced from 21.4% to 15.4%. It is imperative 
to increase literacy rate amongst STs, particularly female 
population amongst them. There are 26 Scheduled Tribe 
groups in the State. The major tribal communities are— 
Bhil, Garasia and Dholi Bhils; Talavia, Halpati; Dhodia; 
Rathwa; Naikda or Nayaka and Gamit, Gamata.
Tribal communities including Kathodi, Padhar, Siddi, 
Kolgha, and Kotwalia belong to the Primitive Tribal Groups. 
In Gujarat, STs are mostly concentrated in the areas along 
the State’s eastern border. 
1. Gamit: Gamit or Mavchi live in South Gujarat. According 
to the 2011 Census, the population is 4.24% (3,78,445), in 
which 1,87,673 males and 1,90,772 females live in 85,331 
families. Gamit is believed to be a sub-caste of the original 
Bhil. The Bhils who settled in the village, in one place are 
considered to be called Gamit.
2. Halpati: Halpati tribes live in Surat, Tapi, Navsari, 
Valsad, and Bharuch districts of South Gujarat. 
According to the 2011 Census, the population of this 
tribe is 7.21%, which is 6,43,120. A total of 1,48,512 
families are divided into a twenty sub-castes. They have 
sub-castes including Talavia, Rachoria, V oria, Damaria, 
V alsadia, Olpadia, Mandvi, and Ubi. 
3. Rathwa: It is mentioned in the Mumbai Gazetteer 
that the Rathwas came from Alirajpur near Madhya 
Pradesh. In Gujarat, they mainly inhabit Chhotaudepur, 
Panchmahal, Dahod districts. According to the 2011 
dEMogRAphy Tribals in Gujarat
Dilip Rana
The author is Executive Director, Gujarat Tribal Research and Training Society , Tribal Research Institute, Gujarat. Email: trigujarat@gmail.com
A
Census, their population is 7.2% (6,42,348). Of these, 
3,25,550 are males and 3,16,798 are females, who live 
in 1,14,073 families. Their occupations include farming, 
animal husbandry, poultry farming, forestry and labour. 
4. Dhodia: This tribe is found in Dang, Navsari, Surat, 
Valsad, Tapi districts of South Gujarat. According 
to the 2011 Census, the total population is 7.13% 
(6,35,695). In Bhili dialect, the roof is called Dhuda 
and its inhabitants are known as Dhundia or ‘Dhodia’ 
or Dhodi. They work for a living on farms, fishing, 
collecting secondary forest products.
Scheduled Tribes (STs) have their own distinctive culture, are indigenous, geographically 
isolated, and low in socio-economic conditions. For centuries, the tribal groups have 
remained outside the realm of the general development process due to their habitation 
in forests and hilly tracts. The state government has undertaken various initiatives under 
Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana to achieve its vision of integrated socio-economic development 
of tribal community of Gujarat.
The Rathwa tribe