Yojana Magazine November 2022 - 2 | Monthly Yojana & Kurukshetra Magazine (English) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


YOJANA   November 2022 23
arine Plastics pollution is a global menace. 
There is a need for regular and standardised 
monitoring of marine litter to understand 
long-term changes in marine litter pollution 
and for the successful development and implementation of 
mitigation strategies. This article discusses coastal clean-up 
and marine plastics survey in the Indian context with a focus 
on the Tamil Nadu coast and the way forward.
Marine Plastics Pollution
R Venkatesan
 Yazhini Sivaram
R. Venkatesan is Scientist (Retired), National Institute of Ocean Technology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Chennai & Adjunct Professor, 
University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, USA. Email: dr.r.venkatesan@gmail.com
Yazhini Sivaram is associated with University of Liverpool, United Kingdom. 
M
Land-based sources
Jambeck et al. (2015) estimated the global amount of 
plastic waste that entered the ocean in 2010 from coastal 
populations living within 50 km of the coastline (Lebreton 
and Andrady, 2019). Based on a fixed percentage of 
mismanaged plastic waste entering the oceans (15% 
for the low-range estimates and 40% for the high-range 
estimates), they estimated that between 4.8 and 12.7×10
6
 t 
Every year, humans produce 300 million tonnes of plastic waste including 11 million tonnes of 
plastic waste that eventually wind up in the ocean. In fact, by 2050, there could be more plastics 
than fish in the ocean. Most plastics never disappear instead, it becomes smaller, with particles 
being swallowed by fish and eventually consumed by Humans in their food and tap water 
(United Nations, 2022). 
COASTAl CleANUp 
Page 2


YOJANA   November 2022 23
arine Plastics pollution is a global menace. 
There is a need for regular and standardised 
monitoring of marine litter to understand 
long-term changes in marine litter pollution 
and for the successful development and implementation of 
mitigation strategies. This article discusses coastal clean-up 
and marine plastics survey in the Indian context with a focus 
on the Tamil Nadu coast and the way forward.
Marine Plastics Pollution
R Venkatesan
 Yazhini Sivaram
R. Venkatesan is Scientist (Retired), National Institute of Ocean Technology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Chennai & Adjunct Professor, 
University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, USA. Email: dr.r.venkatesan@gmail.com
Yazhini Sivaram is associated with University of Liverpool, United Kingdom. 
M
Land-based sources
Jambeck et al. (2015) estimated the global amount of 
plastic waste that entered the ocean in 2010 from coastal 
populations living within 50 km of the coastline (Lebreton 
and Andrady, 2019). Based on a fixed percentage of 
mismanaged plastic waste entering the oceans (15% 
for the low-range estimates and 40% for the high-range 
estimates), they estimated that between 4.8 and 12.7×10
6
 t 
Every year, humans produce 300 million tonnes of plastic waste including 11 million tonnes of 
plastic waste that eventually wind up in the ocean. In fact, by 2050, there could be more plastics 
than fish in the ocean. Most plastics never disappear instead, it becomes smaller, with particles 
being swallowed by fish and eventually consumed by Humans in their food and tap water 
(United Nations, 2022). 
COASTAl CleANUp 
24 YOJANA   November 2022
Accumulation of marine 
debris was reported along the 
coast of Great Nicobar Island, 
Andaman. This accumulation 
might have been due to surface 
ocean currents prevailing 
leading to the transportation of 
solid waste dumped by passing 
ships/fishing vessels.
of plastic entered the global oceans. 
Ocean-based sources
Plastic waste can also enter the ocean directly 
from ocean-based sources such as the fishing industry, 
commercial and recreational shipping, 
and offshore platforms. In 1988, 
the International Convention for 
the Prevention of Pollution from 
Ships (MARPOL) prohibited waste 
dumping from vessels (Pattiaratchi et 
al., 2022)
Marine Plastics Survey in India
Under the Coastal Ocean 
Monitoring and Prediction System 
(COMAPS) programme (one of 
the longest systematic ocean data 
collections for 3 decades), by ICMAM-PD now the 
National Centre for Ocean Research of the Ministry 
of Earth Sciences, accumulation of marine debris was 
reported along the coast of Great Nicobar Island, Andaman. 
This accumulation might have been due to surface ocean 
currents prevailing leading to the transportation of solid 
waste dumped by passing ships/fishing vessels (Dharani 
et al, 2003). This is the first Indian scientific publication 
on marine debris and subsequently, many more research 
papers have been published now. It is reported that 8% 
of the total solid waste produced is plastic waste and 
the top three cities that contribute most to pollution are 
Delhi, Kolkata, and Ahmedabad (Bhattacharya et al., 
2018). Plastic production in India increased by 39.7% 
and now stands at 9.46 million tonnes of plastic waste 
per year when five years ago it was 5.7 million tonnes 
per year (Sivaram et al., 2022). However only 15% of the 
plastic waste produced is recycled in India and the rest is 
sent to landfills, incinerators, or dumped into the oceans 
and rivers. 0.6 million tonnes of plastic waste end up in 
oceans from India alone via rivers, surface run-off etc. 
(Sivaram et al., 2022). Rivers contribute to about 67% of 
the total marine plastic debris in the world (Lebreton et al., 
2017). The Ganges originates from Western Himalayas 
and flows through four countries and discharges in the 
Bay of Bengal. The Ganges discharges about 105000 
tonnes of plastic waste into the Bay of Bengal every year 
(Lechthaler et al., 2021). 
 Tamil Nadu Coast
Tamil Nadu has a long coastline but stands second in 
plastic production in India and the plastic waste reaching 
through rivers and land run-off and ghost gear dumped 
cause serious problems to the flora and fauna as well as 
the livelihood of the fishing communities along the coast 
(Sivaram et al., 2022). The Government of Tamil Nadu 
banned the usage of thin plastic (polymers of thickness 
below 40 microns). Despite such laws passed, Chennai 
is the major cause of plastic production in Tamil Nadu 
as it produces about 898700 tonnes of plastic waste per 
year of which 57000 tonnes per year are disposed into 
the ocean. The major contributors to the discharge of 
plastic into the ocean are the Adyar 
and the Cooum rivers (Sivaram et 
al., 2022), which running through 
the heart of the city accounting 
for 81% and 19% of total riverine 
discharge from Chennai, respectively. 
Thermocol (30.82%), plastic bags 
(28.30%), bottles & caps (13.84%), 
straws (12.83%), and food wrappers 
(8.97%) comprise the majority of 
macroplastic debris. Comparing these 
estimates with data collected from 
about five years ago, there seems to 
be 71.67% increase in plastic discharge into ocean from 
Chennai alone (Mallapur, 2014; The Pioneer, 2013). This 
alarming increase could be due to the increased usage of 
disposable plastics like masks, covid protection kits, and 
home deliveries (Plastic used for packaging is the major 
contributor to plastic waste). 
Sea-based waste must also be taken into 
consideration. The fishing boats of Tamil Nadu can be 
Sampling locations in Northern Indian Ocean for assessment of marine plastics
Major microplastic debris discharged by rivers in Chennai  
(Ref Lechthaler et al., 2021).
Arabian 
Sea
International 
Shipping Route
Bay of 
Bengal
8.97
12.83
13.84
28.3
30.82
Page 3


YOJANA   November 2022 23
arine Plastics pollution is a global menace. 
There is a need for regular and standardised 
monitoring of marine litter to understand 
long-term changes in marine litter pollution 
and for the successful development and implementation of 
mitigation strategies. This article discusses coastal clean-up 
and marine plastics survey in the Indian context with a focus 
on the Tamil Nadu coast and the way forward.
Marine Plastics Pollution
R Venkatesan
 Yazhini Sivaram
R. Venkatesan is Scientist (Retired), National Institute of Ocean Technology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Chennai & Adjunct Professor, 
University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, USA. Email: dr.r.venkatesan@gmail.com
Yazhini Sivaram is associated with University of Liverpool, United Kingdom. 
M
Land-based sources
Jambeck et al. (2015) estimated the global amount of 
plastic waste that entered the ocean in 2010 from coastal 
populations living within 50 km of the coastline (Lebreton 
and Andrady, 2019). Based on a fixed percentage of 
mismanaged plastic waste entering the oceans (15% 
for the low-range estimates and 40% for the high-range 
estimates), they estimated that between 4.8 and 12.7×10
6
 t 
Every year, humans produce 300 million tonnes of plastic waste including 11 million tonnes of 
plastic waste that eventually wind up in the ocean. In fact, by 2050, there could be more plastics 
than fish in the ocean. Most plastics never disappear instead, it becomes smaller, with particles 
being swallowed by fish and eventually consumed by Humans in their food and tap water 
(United Nations, 2022). 
COASTAl CleANUp 
24 YOJANA   November 2022
Accumulation of marine 
debris was reported along the 
coast of Great Nicobar Island, 
Andaman. This accumulation 
might have been due to surface 
ocean currents prevailing 
leading to the transportation of 
solid waste dumped by passing 
ships/fishing vessels.
of plastic entered the global oceans. 
Ocean-based sources
Plastic waste can also enter the ocean directly 
from ocean-based sources such as the fishing industry, 
commercial and recreational shipping, 
and offshore platforms. In 1988, 
the International Convention for 
the Prevention of Pollution from 
Ships (MARPOL) prohibited waste 
dumping from vessels (Pattiaratchi et 
al., 2022)
Marine Plastics Survey in India
Under the Coastal Ocean 
Monitoring and Prediction System 
(COMAPS) programme (one of 
the longest systematic ocean data 
collections for 3 decades), by ICMAM-PD now the 
National Centre for Ocean Research of the Ministry 
of Earth Sciences, accumulation of marine debris was 
reported along the coast of Great Nicobar Island, Andaman. 
This accumulation might have been due to surface ocean 
currents prevailing leading to the transportation of solid 
waste dumped by passing ships/fishing vessels (Dharani 
et al, 2003). This is the first Indian scientific publication 
on marine debris and subsequently, many more research 
papers have been published now. It is reported that 8% 
of the total solid waste produced is plastic waste and 
the top three cities that contribute most to pollution are 
Delhi, Kolkata, and Ahmedabad (Bhattacharya et al., 
2018). Plastic production in India increased by 39.7% 
and now stands at 9.46 million tonnes of plastic waste 
per year when five years ago it was 5.7 million tonnes 
per year (Sivaram et al., 2022). However only 15% of the 
plastic waste produced is recycled in India and the rest is 
sent to landfills, incinerators, or dumped into the oceans 
and rivers. 0.6 million tonnes of plastic waste end up in 
oceans from India alone via rivers, surface run-off etc. 
(Sivaram et al., 2022). Rivers contribute to about 67% of 
the total marine plastic debris in the world (Lebreton et al., 
2017). The Ganges originates from Western Himalayas 
and flows through four countries and discharges in the 
Bay of Bengal. The Ganges discharges about 105000 
tonnes of plastic waste into the Bay of Bengal every year 
(Lechthaler et al., 2021). 
 Tamil Nadu Coast
Tamil Nadu has a long coastline but stands second in 
plastic production in India and the plastic waste reaching 
through rivers and land run-off and ghost gear dumped 
cause serious problems to the flora and fauna as well as 
the livelihood of the fishing communities along the coast 
(Sivaram et al., 2022). The Government of Tamil Nadu 
banned the usage of thin plastic (polymers of thickness 
below 40 microns). Despite such laws passed, Chennai 
is the major cause of plastic production in Tamil Nadu 
as it produces about 898700 tonnes of plastic waste per 
year of which 57000 tonnes per year are disposed into 
the ocean. The major contributors to the discharge of 
plastic into the ocean are the Adyar 
and the Cooum rivers (Sivaram et 
al., 2022), which running through 
the heart of the city accounting 
for 81% and 19% of total riverine 
discharge from Chennai, respectively. 
Thermocol (30.82%), plastic bags 
(28.30%), bottles & caps (13.84%), 
straws (12.83%), and food wrappers 
(8.97%) comprise the majority of 
macroplastic debris. Comparing these 
estimates with data collected from 
about five years ago, there seems to 
be 71.67% increase in plastic discharge into ocean from 
Chennai alone (Mallapur, 2014; The Pioneer, 2013). This 
alarming increase could be due to the increased usage of 
disposable plastics like masks, covid protection kits, and 
home deliveries (Plastic used for packaging is the major 
contributor to plastic waste). 
Sea-based waste must also be taken into 
consideration. The fishing boats of Tamil Nadu can be 
Sampling locations in Northern Indian Ocean for assessment of marine plastics
Major microplastic debris discharged by rivers in Chennai  
(Ref Lechthaler et al., 2021).
Arabian 
Sea
International 
Shipping Route
Bay of 
Bengal
8.97
12.83
13.84
28.3
30.82
YOJANA   November 2022 25
classified as traditional (catamaram, dug-out canoes, 
plank-built canoes, masula boats, dhinghi, outrigger 
canoes, built-up boats) and mechanised (hand line boats, 
pole and line fishing vessel, trolling vessel, dol netter, 
gill netter, Stern trawlers)
 
(Sivaram et al., 2022) and the 
major fishing gear types include gillnets, hook and line, 
shore seines and boat seines (FAO, 1983). No reliable 
sources are available to calculate the estimated ALDFG 
along Tamil Nadu coast. 
Biodiversity - Gulf of Mannar Biosphere
The Gulf of Mannar is an important biodiversity 
hotspot as it supports numerous marine ecosystems 
and provides a sense of economic 
security for Tamil Nadu due to its 
fisheries resources. It is situated 
in Tamil Nadu and extends from 
Rameswaram to Kanyakumari. Horst-
Graben structure, the prevalence of 
monsoon, two courses of drift in 
water currents, Cenozoic sedimentary 
functions and riverine processes make 
the Gulf of Mannar biosphere ideal 
for a lot of marine biota and stable 
marine ecosystems. Anthropogenic 
influences on the environment leading 
to pollution and climate change are 
the major causes of biodiversity 
degradation worldwide, ALDFG, untreated sewage 
and solid wastes from domestic and industrial sources 
(Edward et al., 2020).  
Abandoned, Lost, or Discarded Fishing Gear 
(ALDFG) 
Abandoned, Lost, or Discarded Fishing Gear 
(ALDFG) is a serious problem worldwide as there is a 
lack of data. Most of these wastes are due to shipping or 
fishing accidents, bad weather, etc., and while most of the 
lost gears are retrieved by the fishers, the little that remains 
causes serious problems to the marine ecosystems. A 
lot of species are killed by these wastes, and since they 
do not decompose easily, they keep 
killing various organisms throughout 
their lifetime. About 20% of all the 
plastic debris in the oceans is from 
ALDFG according to UNEP. Globally, 
it is estimated that about 640000 
tonnes of ghost gears are disposed into 
the oceans every year (Sivaram et al., 
2022). 
India has 174000 units of fishing 
gear in operation, of which 154008 
units are gillnets / driftnets and 7285 
units are traps while the remaining is 
fishing lines (Thomas et al., 2019). 
Of these, 15276 tonnes of gillnets are 
The Gulf of Mannar is an 
important biodiversity hotspot 
as it supports numerous marine 
ecosystems and provides a 
sense of economic security for 
Tamil Nadu due to its fisheries 
resources. Anthropogenic 
influences on the environment 
leading to pollution and climate 
change are the major causes 
of biodiversity degradation 
worldwide.
Settlement and transport of plastics in the midwater column of the ocean through various governing factors (Source : Kane & Clare, 2019)
Page 4


YOJANA   November 2022 23
arine Plastics pollution is a global menace. 
There is a need for regular and standardised 
monitoring of marine litter to understand 
long-term changes in marine litter pollution 
and for the successful development and implementation of 
mitigation strategies. This article discusses coastal clean-up 
and marine plastics survey in the Indian context with a focus 
on the Tamil Nadu coast and the way forward.
Marine Plastics Pollution
R Venkatesan
 Yazhini Sivaram
R. Venkatesan is Scientist (Retired), National Institute of Ocean Technology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Chennai & Adjunct Professor, 
University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, USA. Email: dr.r.venkatesan@gmail.com
Yazhini Sivaram is associated with University of Liverpool, United Kingdom. 
M
Land-based sources
Jambeck et al. (2015) estimated the global amount of 
plastic waste that entered the ocean in 2010 from coastal 
populations living within 50 km of the coastline (Lebreton 
and Andrady, 2019). Based on a fixed percentage of 
mismanaged plastic waste entering the oceans (15% 
for the low-range estimates and 40% for the high-range 
estimates), they estimated that between 4.8 and 12.7×10
6
 t 
Every year, humans produce 300 million tonnes of plastic waste including 11 million tonnes of 
plastic waste that eventually wind up in the ocean. In fact, by 2050, there could be more plastics 
than fish in the ocean. Most plastics never disappear instead, it becomes smaller, with particles 
being swallowed by fish and eventually consumed by Humans in their food and tap water 
(United Nations, 2022). 
COASTAl CleANUp 
24 YOJANA   November 2022
Accumulation of marine 
debris was reported along the 
coast of Great Nicobar Island, 
Andaman. This accumulation 
might have been due to surface 
ocean currents prevailing 
leading to the transportation of 
solid waste dumped by passing 
ships/fishing vessels.
of plastic entered the global oceans. 
Ocean-based sources
Plastic waste can also enter the ocean directly 
from ocean-based sources such as the fishing industry, 
commercial and recreational shipping, 
and offshore platforms. In 1988, 
the International Convention for 
the Prevention of Pollution from 
Ships (MARPOL) prohibited waste 
dumping from vessels (Pattiaratchi et 
al., 2022)
Marine Plastics Survey in India
Under the Coastal Ocean 
Monitoring and Prediction System 
(COMAPS) programme (one of 
the longest systematic ocean data 
collections for 3 decades), by ICMAM-PD now the 
National Centre for Ocean Research of the Ministry 
of Earth Sciences, accumulation of marine debris was 
reported along the coast of Great Nicobar Island, Andaman. 
This accumulation might have been due to surface ocean 
currents prevailing leading to the transportation of solid 
waste dumped by passing ships/fishing vessels (Dharani 
et al, 2003). This is the first Indian scientific publication 
on marine debris and subsequently, many more research 
papers have been published now. It is reported that 8% 
of the total solid waste produced is plastic waste and 
the top three cities that contribute most to pollution are 
Delhi, Kolkata, and Ahmedabad (Bhattacharya et al., 
2018). Plastic production in India increased by 39.7% 
and now stands at 9.46 million tonnes of plastic waste 
per year when five years ago it was 5.7 million tonnes 
per year (Sivaram et al., 2022). However only 15% of the 
plastic waste produced is recycled in India and the rest is 
sent to landfills, incinerators, or dumped into the oceans 
and rivers. 0.6 million tonnes of plastic waste end up in 
oceans from India alone via rivers, surface run-off etc. 
(Sivaram et al., 2022). Rivers contribute to about 67% of 
the total marine plastic debris in the world (Lebreton et al., 
2017). The Ganges originates from Western Himalayas 
and flows through four countries and discharges in the 
Bay of Bengal. The Ganges discharges about 105000 
tonnes of plastic waste into the Bay of Bengal every year 
(Lechthaler et al., 2021). 
 Tamil Nadu Coast
Tamil Nadu has a long coastline but stands second in 
plastic production in India and the plastic waste reaching 
through rivers and land run-off and ghost gear dumped 
cause serious problems to the flora and fauna as well as 
the livelihood of the fishing communities along the coast 
(Sivaram et al., 2022). The Government of Tamil Nadu 
banned the usage of thin plastic (polymers of thickness 
below 40 microns). Despite such laws passed, Chennai 
is the major cause of plastic production in Tamil Nadu 
as it produces about 898700 tonnes of plastic waste per 
year of which 57000 tonnes per year are disposed into 
the ocean. The major contributors to the discharge of 
plastic into the ocean are the Adyar 
and the Cooum rivers (Sivaram et 
al., 2022), which running through 
the heart of the city accounting 
for 81% and 19% of total riverine 
discharge from Chennai, respectively. 
Thermocol (30.82%), plastic bags 
(28.30%), bottles & caps (13.84%), 
straws (12.83%), and food wrappers 
(8.97%) comprise the majority of 
macroplastic debris. Comparing these 
estimates with data collected from 
about five years ago, there seems to 
be 71.67% increase in plastic discharge into ocean from 
Chennai alone (Mallapur, 2014; The Pioneer, 2013). This 
alarming increase could be due to the increased usage of 
disposable plastics like masks, covid protection kits, and 
home deliveries (Plastic used for packaging is the major 
contributor to plastic waste). 
Sea-based waste must also be taken into 
consideration. The fishing boats of Tamil Nadu can be 
Sampling locations in Northern Indian Ocean for assessment of marine plastics
Major microplastic debris discharged by rivers in Chennai  
(Ref Lechthaler et al., 2021).
Arabian 
Sea
International 
Shipping Route
Bay of 
Bengal
8.97
12.83
13.84
28.3
30.82
YOJANA   November 2022 25
classified as traditional (catamaram, dug-out canoes, 
plank-built canoes, masula boats, dhinghi, outrigger 
canoes, built-up boats) and mechanised (hand line boats, 
pole and line fishing vessel, trolling vessel, dol netter, 
gill netter, Stern trawlers)
 
(Sivaram et al., 2022) and the 
major fishing gear types include gillnets, hook and line, 
shore seines and boat seines (FAO, 1983). No reliable 
sources are available to calculate the estimated ALDFG 
along Tamil Nadu coast. 
Biodiversity - Gulf of Mannar Biosphere
The Gulf of Mannar is an important biodiversity 
hotspot as it supports numerous marine ecosystems 
and provides a sense of economic 
security for Tamil Nadu due to its 
fisheries resources. It is situated 
in Tamil Nadu and extends from 
Rameswaram to Kanyakumari. Horst-
Graben structure, the prevalence of 
monsoon, two courses of drift in 
water currents, Cenozoic sedimentary 
functions and riverine processes make 
the Gulf of Mannar biosphere ideal 
for a lot of marine biota and stable 
marine ecosystems. Anthropogenic 
influences on the environment leading 
to pollution and climate change are 
the major causes of biodiversity 
degradation worldwide, ALDFG, untreated sewage 
and solid wastes from domestic and industrial sources 
(Edward et al., 2020).  
Abandoned, Lost, or Discarded Fishing Gear 
(ALDFG) 
Abandoned, Lost, or Discarded Fishing Gear 
(ALDFG) is a serious problem worldwide as there is a 
lack of data. Most of these wastes are due to shipping or 
fishing accidents, bad weather, etc., and while most of the 
lost gears are retrieved by the fishers, the little that remains 
causes serious problems to the marine ecosystems. A 
lot of species are killed by these wastes, and since they 
do not decompose easily, they keep 
killing various organisms throughout 
their lifetime. About 20% of all the 
plastic debris in the oceans is from 
ALDFG according to UNEP. Globally, 
it is estimated that about 640000 
tonnes of ghost gears are disposed into 
the oceans every year (Sivaram et al., 
2022). 
India has 174000 units of fishing 
gear in operation, of which 154008 
units are gillnets / driftnets and 7285 
units are traps while the remaining is 
fishing lines (Thomas et al., 2019). 
Of these, 15276 tonnes of gillnets are 
The Gulf of Mannar is an 
important biodiversity hotspot 
as it supports numerous marine 
ecosystems and provides a 
sense of economic security for 
Tamil Nadu due to its fisheries 
resources. Anthropogenic 
influences on the environment 
leading to pollution and climate 
change are the major causes 
of biodiversity degradation 
worldwide.
Settlement and transport of plastics in the midwater column of the ocean through various governing factors (Source : Kane & Clare, 2019)
26 YOJANA   November 2022
lost from India per year (FAO, 2020).
Microplastics
Plastics are made from non-
renewable resources such as crude oil 
and hence they are hard to decompose 
as the polymers are bonded through 
covalent bonds, a strong bonding 
force. Microplastic is about 5mm 
in diameter and is always disposed 
into the environment through 
anthropogenic sources (Sivaram et 
al., 2022). They are particularly hard 
to locate, track and study as they 
are smaller than what the naked eye 
can see. Another major issue with 
microplastics is that they show a high 
affinity to other toxicants, making them more dangerous 
to the organisms ingesting them. The majority of 
the plastic debris (~94%) in the oceans disintegrates 
into microplastic while the remaining 6% remains 
as microplastic (Sivaram et al., 2022). This makes it 
important to study microplastic and their dynamics. 
Calculating the amount of microplastic entering the 
ocean can be challenging as they are small and the rate 
at which plastics degrade is unknown. Nevertheless, the 
abundance of microplastic from Chennai is found to 
be +/- 184 microplastic/kg of sediments (Satish et al., 
2019) and about 0.33 particles/l of water from Adyar 
river (Sivaram et al., 2022). Adyar river discharges 
about 11.6 trillion microplastic particles into the Bay of 
Bengal per year (Lechthaler et al., 2021). Such a large 
discharge causes harm to the natural ecosystems and 
inevitably affects humans too. Microplastic abundance 
was studied, and it was found that the polymers PE 
contributes to 46.7%, PP to 46.7% and PS to 6.7% of 
all the microplastic (Fig.2 )
 
 About 64 % are fibres, 22% 
films, 12% fragments and 2% pellets and 44% of them 
were black, 30.4% red, 14.2% white (Lechthaler at al., 
2021). These are the types of microplastic discovered in 
the natural ecosystem so far. 
Under the Marine Plastics survey programme of 
NCCR, the distribution of microplastics was studied 
in Coastal locations in the Bay of Bengal (BoB) and 
Arabian Sea (AS) in particular along the International 
shipping routes. This study showed microplastics are 
observed in almost all the sampled sites in the Open 
Ocean in the 100m mid-water column in all seasons. 
Compared to other transects, more microplastics 
were observed during pre-monsoon in BoB and post-
monsoon in AS. The coastal locations in post-monsoon 
show three times concentration lesser than AS. Some 
samples had no plastics at a few locations in the Arabian 
sea and in the Bay of Bengal. The most dominant type 
of microplastics found in the water 
column is microfiber/lines. The 
major types of polymers identified 
in the study are Polypropylene (PP), 
High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), 
Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), 
and Poly(amide-6) (Nylon). Further, 
extensive sampling is needed to 
understand the vertical movement of 
the microplastics.
One of the main plastics, 
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 
is found in clothes and when these 
clothes are washed small plastics 
known as microplastics are released. 
Biodegradation offers a method to 
remove and prevent a build-up of 
microplastics (and potentially a new recycling method). 
Biodegradation is a process by which enzymes break up 
a polymer (e.g., PET) back into its original monomer 
form. Global research is focused on the use of plastic-
degrading enzymes is a promising future prospect in 
managing and recycling robust plastics such as PET. 
Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar
Commemorating the 75
th
 year of India’s 
independence, a coastal cleanup drive was carried out at 
75 beaches across the country for 75 days over 7500 km 
long coastline. This unique first-ever national campaign 
culminated on “International Coastal Clean-up Day” on 
17 September 2022. This drive was aimed to remove 
1,500 tonnes of garbage from the sea coast which will 
be a huge relief to marine life and the people staying in 
coastal areas. 
Discussion
Many industries employ plastic in various products 
due to its nature and ease of production. They have 
certainly helped us enhance the efficiency of products, 
leading to a constant demand for them. While the 
petrochemical sector is regarded as the backbone of 
plastic production, it is also considered a yardstick for 
measuring global economic growth, wherein plastic 
processing and production are of vital importance. It is 
expected that in the current financial year (2018) exports 
would cross 8 billion USD with increased growth of 9.5% 
in the first half of FY 2018 as compared to the past year. 
It is also envisaged that exports are expected to double 
in the next five years, owing to the growing domestic 
production. However, at a matching rate, the volume of 
plastic waste has also grown over the years, not just in 
India, but globally. The major challenge, however, is the 
segregation and re-aggregation of plastic waste streams 
such as packaging waste, including laminated plastic.
Microplastics show a high 
affinity to other toxicants, 
making them more dangerous 
to the organisms ingesting 
them. Calculating the amount 
of microplastic entering the 
ocean can be challenging as 
they are small and the rate 
at which plastics degrade is 
unknown. Large discharge 
causes harm to the natural 
ecosystems and inevitably 
affects humans too.
Page 5


YOJANA   November 2022 23
arine Plastics pollution is a global menace. 
There is a need for regular and standardised 
monitoring of marine litter to understand 
long-term changes in marine litter pollution 
and for the successful development and implementation of 
mitigation strategies. This article discusses coastal clean-up 
and marine plastics survey in the Indian context with a focus 
on the Tamil Nadu coast and the way forward.
Marine Plastics Pollution
R Venkatesan
 Yazhini Sivaram
R. Venkatesan is Scientist (Retired), National Institute of Ocean Technology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Chennai & Adjunct Professor, 
University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, USA. Email: dr.r.venkatesan@gmail.com
Yazhini Sivaram is associated with University of Liverpool, United Kingdom. 
M
Land-based sources
Jambeck et al. (2015) estimated the global amount of 
plastic waste that entered the ocean in 2010 from coastal 
populations living within 50 km of the coastline (Lebreton 
and Andrady, 2019). Based on a fixed percentage of 
mismanaged plastic waste entering the oceans (15% 
for the low-range estimates and 40% for the high-range 
estimates), they estimated that between 4.8 and 12.7×10
6
 t 
Every year, humans produce 300 million tonnes of plastic waste including 11 million tonnes of 
plastic waste that eventually wind up in the ocean. In fact, by 2050, there could be more plastics 
than fish in the ocean. Most plastics never disappear instead, it becomes smaller, with particles 
being swallowed by fish and eventually consumed by Humans in their food and tap water 
(United Nations, 2022). 
COASTAl CleANUp 
24 YOJANA   November 2022
Accumulation of marine 
debris was reported along the 
coast of Great Nicobar Island, 
Andaman. This accumulation 
might have been due to surface 
ocean currents prevailing 
leading to the transportation of 
solid waste dumped by passing 
ships/fishing vessels.
of plastic entered the global oceans. 
Ocean-based sources
Plastic waste can also enter the ocean directly 
from ocean-based sources such as the fishing industry, 
commercial and recreational shipping, 
and offshore platforms. In 1988, 
the International Convention for 
the Prevention of Pollution from 
Ships (MARPOL) prohibited waste 
dumping from vessels (Pattiaratchi et 
al., 2022)
Marine Plastics Survey in India
Under the Coastal Ocean 
Monitoring and Prediction System 
(COMAPS) programme (one of 
the longest systematic ocean data 
collections for 3 decades), by ICMAM-PD now the 
National Centre for Ocean Research of the Ministry 
of Earth Sciences, accumulation of marine debris was 
reported along the coast of Great Nicobar Island, Andaman. 
This accumulation might have been due to surface ocean 
currents prevailing leading to the transportation of solid 
waste dumped by passing ships/fishing vessels (Dharani 
et al, 2003). This is the first Indian scientific publication 
on marine debris and subsequently, many more research 
papers have been published now. It is reported that 8% 
of the total solid waste produced is plastic waste and 
the top three cities that contribute most to pollution are 
Delhi, Kolkata, and Ahmedabad (Bhattacharya et al., 
2018). Plastic production in India increased by 39.7% 
and now stands at 9.46 million tonnes of plastic waste 
per year when five years ago it was 5.7 million tonnes 
per year (Sivaram et al., 2022). However only 15% of the 
plastic waste produced is recycled in India and the rest is 
sent to landfills, incinerators, or dumped into the oceans 
and rivers. 0.6 million tonnes of plastic waste end up in 
oceans from India alone via rivers, surface run-off etc. 
(Sivaram et al., 2022). Rivers contribute to about 67% of 
the total marine plastic debris in the world (Lebreton et al., 
2017). The Ganges originates from Western Himalayas 
and flows through four countries and discharges in the 
Bay of Bengal. The Ganges discharges about 105000 
tonnes of plastic waste into the Bay of Bengal every year 
(Lechthaler et al., 2021). 
 Tamil Nadu Coast
Tamil Nadu has a long coastline but stands second in 
plastic production in India and the plastic waste reaching 
through rivers and land run-off and ghost gear dumped 
cause serious problems to the flora and fauna as well as 
the livelihood of the fishing communities along the coast 
(Sivaram et al., 2022). The Government of Tamil Nadu 
banned the usage of thin plastic (polymers of thickness 
below 40 microns). Despite such laws passed, Chennai 
is the major cause of plastic production in Tamil Nadu 
as it produces about 898700 tonnes of plastic waste per 
year of which 57000 tonnes per year are disposed into 
the ocean. The major contributors to the discharge of 
plastic into the ocean are the Adyar 
and the Cooum rivers (Sivaram et 
al., 2022), which running through 
the heart of the city accounting 
for 81% and 19% of total riverine 
discharge from Chennai, respectively. 
Thermocol (30.82%), plastic bags 
(28.30%), bottles & caps (13.84%), 
straws (12.83%), and food wrappers 
(8.97%) comprise the majority of 
macroplastic debris. Comparing these 
estimates with data collected from 
about five years ago, there seems to 
be 71.67% increase in plastic discharge into ocean from 
Chennai alone (Mallapur, 2014; The Pioneer, 2013). This 
alarming increase could be due to the increased usage of 
disposable plastics like masks, covid protection kits, and 
home deliveries (Plastic used for packaging is the major 
contributor to plastic waste). 
Sea-based waste must also be taken into 
consideration. The fishing boats of Tamil Nadu can be 
Sampling locations in Northern Indian Ocean for assessment of marine plastics
Major microplastic debris discharged by rivers in Chennai  
(Ref Lechthaler et al., 2021).
Arabian 
Sea
International 
Shipping Route
Bay of 
Bengal
8.97
12.83
13.84
28.3
30.82
YOJANA   November 2022 25
classified as traditional (catamaram, dug-out canoes, 
plank-built canoes, masula boats, dhinghi, outrigger 
canoes, built-up boats) and mechanised (hand line boats, 
pole and line fishing vessel, trolling vessel, dol netter, 
gill netter, Stern trawlers)
 
(Sivaram et al., 2022) and the 
major fishing gear types include gillnets, hook and line, 
shore seines and boat seines (FAO, 1983). No reliable 
sources are available to calculate the estimated ALDFG 
along Tamil Nadu coast. 
Biodiversity - Gulf of Mannar Biosphere
The Gulf of Mannar is an important biodiversity 
hotspot as it supports numerous marine ecosystems 
and provides a sense of economic 
security for Tamil Nadu due to its 
fisheries resources. It is situated 
in Tamil Nadu and extends from 
Rameswaram to Kanyakumari. Horst-
Graben structure, the prevalence of 
monsoon, two courses of drift in 
water currents, Cenozoic sedimentary 
functions and riverine processes make 
the Gulf of Mannar biosphere ideal 
for a lot of marine biota and stable 
marine ecosystems. Anthropogenic 
influences on the environment leading 
to pollution and climate change are 
the major causes of biodiversity 
degradation worldwide, ALDFG, untreated sewage 
and solid wastes from domestic and industrial sources 
(Edward et al., 2020).  
Abandoned, Lost, or Discarded Fishing Gear 
(ALDFG) 
Abandoned, Lost, or Discarded Fishing Gear 
(ALDFG) is a serious problem worldwide as there is a 
lack of data. Most of these wastes are due to shipping or 
fishing accidents, bad weather, etc., and while most of the 
lost gears are retrieved by the fishers, the little that remains 
causes serious problems to the marine ecosystems. A 
lot of species are killed by these wastes, and since they 
do not decompose easily, they keep 
killing various organisms throughout 
their lifetime. About 20% of all the 
plastic debris in the oceans is from 
ALDFG according to UNEP. Globally, 
it is estimated that about 640000 
tonnes of ghost gears are disposed into 
the oceans every year (Sivaram et al., 
2022). 
India has 174000 units of fishing 
gear in operation, of which 154008 
units are gillnets / driftnets and 7285 
units are traps while the remaining is 
fishing lines (Thomas et al., 2019). 
Of these, 15276 tonnes of gillnets are 
The Gulf of Mannar is an 
important biodiversity hotspot 
as it supports numerous marine 
ecosystems and provides a 
sense of economic security for 
Tamil Nadu due to its fisheries 
resources. Anthropogenic 
influences on the environment 
leading to pollution and climate 
change are the major causes 
of biodiversity degradation 
worldwide.
Settlement and transport of plastics in the midwater column of the ocean through various governing factors (Source : Kane & Clare, 2019)
26 YOJANA   November 2022
lost from India per year (FAO, 2020).
Microplastics
Plastics are made from non-
renewable resources such as crude oil 
and hence they are hard to decompose 
as the polymers are bonded through 
covalent bonds, a strong bonding 
force. Microplastic is about 5mm 
in diameter and is always disposed 
into the environment through 
anthropogenic sources (Sivaram et 
al., 2022). They are particularly hard 
to locate, track and study as they 
are smaller than what the naked eye 
can see. Another major issue with 
microplastics is that they show a high 
affinity to other toxicants, making them more dangerous 
to the organisms ingesting them. The majority of 
the plastic debris (~94%) in the oceans disintegrates 
into microplastic while the remaining 6% remains 
as microplastic (Sivaram et al., 2022). This makes it 
important to study microplastic and their dynamics. 
Calculating the amount of microplastic entering the 
ocean can be challenging as they are small and the rate 
at which plastics degrade is unknown. Nevertheless, the 
abundance of microplastic from Chennai is found to 
be +/- 184 microplastic/kg of sediments (Satish et al., 
2019) and about 0.33 particles/l of water from Adyar 
river (Sivaram et al., 2022). Adyar river discharges 
about 11.6 trillion microplastic particles into the Bay of 
Bengal per year (Lechthaler et al., 2021). Such a large 
discharge causes harm to the natural ecosystems and 
inevitably affects humans too. Microplastic abundance 
was studied, and it was found that the polymers PE 
contributes to 46.7%, PP to 46.7% and PS to 6.7% of 
all the microplastic (Fig.2 )
 
 About 64 % are fibres, 22% 
films, 12% fragments and 2% pellets and 44% of them 
were black, 30.4% red, 14.2% white (Lechthaler at al., 
2021). These are the types of microplastic discovered in 
the natural ecosystem so far. 
Under the Marine Plastics survey programme of 
NCCR, the distribution of microplastics was studied 
in Coastal locations in the Bay of Bengal (BoB) and 
Arabian Sea (AS) in particular along the International 
shipping routes. This study showed microplastics are 
observed in almost all the sampled sites in the Open 
Ocean in the 100m mid-water column in all seasons. 
Compared to other transects, more microplastics 
were observed during pre-monsoon in BoB and post-
monsoon in AS. The coastal locations in post-monsoon 
show three times concentration lesser than AS. Some 
samples had no plastics at a few locations in the Arabian 
sea and in the Bay of Bengal. The most dominant type 
of microplastics found in the water 
column is microfiber/lines. The 
major types of polymers identified 
in the study are Polypropylene (PP), 
High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), 
Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), 
and Poly(amide-6) (Nylon). Further, 
extensive sampling is needed to 
understand the vertical movement of 
the microplastics.
One of the main plastics, 
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 
is found in clothes and when these 
clothes are washed small plastics 
known as microplastics are released. 
Biodegradation offers a method to 
remove and prevent a build-up of 
microplastics (and potentially a new recycling method). 
Biodegradation is a process by which enzymes break up 
a polymer (e.g., PET) back into its original monomer 
form. Global research is focused on the use of plastic-
degrading enzymes is a promising future prospect in 
managing and recycling robust plastics such as PET. 
Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar
Commemorating the 75
th
 year of India’s 
independence, a coastal cleanup drive was carried out at 
75 beaches across the country for 75 days over 7500 km 
long coastline. This unique first-ever national campaign 
culminated on “International Coastal Clean-up Day” on 
17 September 2022. This drive was aimed to remove 
1,500 tonnes of garbage from the sea coast which will 
be a huge relief to marine life and the people staying in 
coastal areas. 
Discussion
Many industries employ plastic in various products 
due to its nature and ease of production. They have 
certainly helped us enhance the efficiency of products, 
leading to a constant demand for them. While the 
petrochemical sector is regarded as the backbone of 
plastic production, it is also considered a yardstick for 
measuring global economic growth, wherein plastic 
processing and production are of vital importance. It is 
expected that in the current financial year (2018) exports 
would cross 8 billion USD with increased growth of 9.5% 
in the first half of FY 2018 as compared to the past year. 
It is also envisaged that exports are expected to double 
in the next five years, owing to the growing domestic 
production. However, at a matching rate, the volume of 
plastic waste has also grown over the years, not just in 
India, but globally. The major challenge, however, is the 
segregation and re-aggregation of plastic waste streams 
such as packaging waste, including laminated plastic.
Microplastics show a high 
affinity to other toxicants, 
making them more dangerous 
to the organisms ingesting 
them. Calculating the amount 
of microplastic entering the 
ocean can be challenging as 
they are small and the rate 
at which plastics degrade is 
unknown. Large discharge 
causes harm to the natural 
ecosystems and inevitably 
affects humans too.
YOJANA   November 2022 27
The biodiversity of India is unique, and steps 
must be taken to ensure its safety. Millions of people’s 
livelihood depends on the biodiversity of India so 
care must be taken to protect and boost environmental 
health. Plastic pollution is a concerning issue as 
consumption and discharge have increased but no 
steps have been taken by India to study, monitor, and 
reduce plastic usage. While the petrochemical sector is 
regarded as the backbone of plastic production, it is also 
considered a yardstick for measuring global economic 
growth, wherein plastic processing and production are 
of vital importance. However, the volume of plastic 
waste has also grown over the years. Microplastics add 
to the harmful effects caused by plastic. These make it 
necessary to find ways to reduce the usage of plastic 
because India needs diverse ecosystems to thrive.       ?
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