Secularism and Communalism - Indian Polity | Additional Study Material for UPSC PDF Download

Oriental civilisations have always been seen as religious both by the Orientals and the Westerners.

Religion. has been a part of society politics in India, which has remained by temperament a religious country. Though India  has a plurality of religions, Hindus constitute the dominant community- over 82% of the population (census of 1991). Muslim, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and other communities account for the remaining 18%.

Historical Foundation

'Dharma', which denoted the social order of law, duty, morality and religion, had been the main duty of the ancient kings. Kautilya referred to the king as dharmapravartak, protector-promoter of the social order. The king was expected to act impartially, promote religion and encourage piety and virtue and aid religious institutions, This explains the easy assimilation of the Greeks, Huns etc, into the Hindu fold.

The religiously tolerant Hindu state, which patronised all sects impartially, proved one of the historical bases of secularism. The ancient Hindu state cannot, however, be compared with the modern secular state.

While in the past secularism meant only religious toleration, in the modern State it means equal and active promotion and protection of all religions.

The secular aspect of life changed in the Muslim period, Muslim rulers, under fear psychosis, encouraged Islam at the cost of other religions. But enlightened rulers like Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Alauddin Khilji, Akbar etc, rose above the religion. They promoted tolerance and syncretism and accorded solid base for Hindu-Muslim unity. Bhakti leaders also encouraged equality and fraternity in the multi religious society of India. The bigotry of Aurangzeb, however, undid much of this good work. Though more politically motivated than with the religious zeal of spreading Islam, the incidents of idol breaking shook the traditional 'secular' base of the State.

The British either maintained neutrality or encouraged Christian missionaries to spread Christianity. The policy of 'divide and rule', which was to counterpoise the growing national movement and separate electorate systems, once again hindered the growth of common national culture.

The Congress accepted the principle of religious neutrality as early as 1931 for independent India. After independence, the Congress passed a resolution in 1951 saying.

"It has been the aim and declared policy of the Congress since its inception to establish a democratic secular State which, while honouring every faith, does not discriminate against any religion or community and gives equal rights and freedom of opportunity to all communities and individuals who form the nation."

Nehru was a great champion of secularism. Congress, as the ruling party, has maintained the tradition of non-communal nationalism. It is to this party that the minorities instinctively looked for protection.

The Concept of Secularism

Secularism means not merely freedom of religion but also an attempt to separate religion and the State even religion and politics. According to D.E. White, the term 'Secular State' is a State which guarantees individual and corporate freedom of religion. Neither it is constitutionally limited to a particular religion nor does it seek either to promote or interfere with religions. The concept of a secular State involves three distinct but interrelated sets of relationships concerning the State, religion and individual.

In its first aspect  (Individual-religion relationship) the individual is free to consider and to discuss with others the relative claim of different religions and to come to his decision without any interference from the State. If he professes a religion, he is free to follow its teachings, participate in its worship and other activities, propagate its doctrines and hold office to renounce his religion, he is at liberty to do so. The State cannot force anyone in favour of one religion either directly or tacitly. The State can, however, legitimately regulate the manifestation of religion in the interest of public health, safety or morals.

The second aspect is individual-State relationship. The State views an individual as a citizen rather than a follower of a religion. The rights and duties of citizens are not at all affected by their religious beliefs.

In the third and final aspect, separation of State and religion is exhibited. Both are independent and have their own objectives and methods. It is not the function of the State to promote, regulate, direct or otherwise interfere in religion. Similarly, political power is outside the scope of religion's legitimate aims.

Thus, secularism in India, unlike the western secularism of indifference to religion, means equal respect for all religious, cultural traditions.

Constitutional Provisions

The Constitution seeks to enforce religious liberty of both the individual and associations united by common beliefs, practices and disciplines. These provisions are:

1. Individual freedom of religion. The basic guarantee of this right is found in Art. 25 (1). Subject to public order, morality and health and to the other provisions of this part, all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practise and propagate religion.

The freedom of religion guaranteed by the Constitution extends to 'all persons' including aliens. This point was underlined by the Supreme Court in Ratilal Panchand vs State of Bombay. Even foreign Christian missionaries are free to propagate their faith in India.

Art. 25(2) imposes limitations to the right, subject to public order, morality and health. It also empowers the State to make any law regulating or restructuring any economic, financial, political or other secular activity which may be associated with religious practice. The State also has the power to throw open Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all Hindus.

Art. 27 declares that no person shall be compelled to pay taxes for the support of any particular religion. Art 28(3) forbids compulsory, religious instruction or worship in educational institutions recognised or aided by the State.

2. Collective freedom of religion. Art. 26 reads that subject to public order, morality and health, every religious denomination or any religious theory shall have the right:

1. to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes;
2. to manage its own affairs in matters of religion;
3. to own and acquire movable and immovable property; and
4. to administer such property in accordance with law.

Art. 15 (1) provides : "the State shall not discriminate against any religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them." The exception is included as Art. 15(4) which says that nothing in the article shall prevent the State from making special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the scheduled castes and tribes.

Art. 16(1) asserts the principle of equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relation to employment or appointment to any office under the State.
 But Art. 16(4) authorises the State to make provisions for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens, which in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the state.

Art. 299(2) provides that no citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institutions maintained by the State or receiving aid out of state funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them. Art. 39(1) makes provisions for the minorities whether based on religion or language. The 42nd amendment, 1976 exhibited the secular tenor of the State by inserting the term 'secular' in the Preamble.

Communalism

Communalism has posed not merely an administrative and political failure but also an intellectual one. It has been defying diagnosis. Rajni Kothari says, "different religious and linguistic groups have coexisted in this land for centuries. How is it that cultural survival has come to mean the negation of the other, the death to the other?" According to Kothari communalism has two meanings. In a positive sense, it means consciousness of common identity of a group of people based upon their cultural heritage (language, religion, caste) etc. Such awareness exists in plural societies and entails:

1. respect for other identities,and
2. a possibility of living and celebrating diversity organically, as parts of a whole. In a negative sense, communalism means an exclusive identity that denies respect for other identities. Unity here, is sought to be achieved not organically but by subjugation of others.

Communalism is, like nationalism, a product of the modern process. Its symptoms are seen in other parts of the world as well. For example, racial conflicts show similar phenomena resulting from the transitional stages of a society. Neither nationalism nor communalism existed in the ancient and medieval period. Both resulted due to modernisation, which made it imperative to have wider lands and loyalties and to base political linkages on new uniting principles. Both nationalists and communalists may try to appeal to the past and try to establish links with the ideologies, movements and history of the past. This has been proved by the writing of Bipan Chandra, Harbans Mukhia and Romila Thapar.

Since communalism has a modern origin, mainly embedded in the growth of new political process, modernisation has contributed to its growth. The 'development of underdeveloped' has meant only commenting and hardening of cultural differences. There is no 'modernisation of minds.' This is why the communal virus is most active at the most modernised places. Modernisation has, first homogenised the cultural identities and destroyed the positive roots of culture.

Secondly, by causing pockets of economic growth and regional imbalance, it has caused the shrinkage of social space. In development, it is assumed that its benefits would be shared on humanitarian and equality principles. But in reality, development is guided by the principles of market forces.

Also, modernisation has displaced many persons from their traditional occupations. With increasing competition, one competed with the other. Distrusts replaces confidence, one community perceives a threat from the other, and this race of competitiveness creates communal unrest.

Party to be blamed is also the historical legacy of the freedom struggle. Because the British followed a divide and rule policy, the nationalist leaders also made certain mistakes, e.g. portrayal of Shivaji as the leader of Maratha Shuddhi movement, etc.

The after effects of partition and the continuing tensions and political problems between India and Pakistan are also to blame. The Kashmir problem, for example, is propagated as a religious one and Kashmiris are instigated against the government on the same ground. The slow development of the country and socioeconomic disparities between different communities also encourage communalism. The pressure of democracy and competition and electoral politics have introduced the concept of 'vote banks' based on religion. The educational system, particularly the interpretation of history, has often tended to promote communal conceptions and stereotypes. Some commercial groups and anti-social elements (like smugglers, bootleggers etc.) also promote communal violence for their own ends.

Remedies

The efforts to separate religion and politics in India have achieved only limited success. Communal stereotypes, images and prejudices permeate the thinking of many people, including the political elite. This has deleterious effects even in normal times.

The task of combating communalism is not possible only by government's efforts and administrative machinery. It should involve the political parties, voluntary organisations and every type of pressure group. The mass media and the press and the educational system should be used in the campaign to root out the communal virus.

The following concrete steps would help:

1. Economic development coupled with reduction in glaring inequalities between different communities and sectors of society.
2. Action against political parties and other organisations that practise or propagate communalism.
3. Removal of communal orientation from the educational system, and   particularly textbooks.
4. Quick resolution of disputes/issues that can give rise to communal tension.
5. Pinpointing responsibility of administrative and police officials for dealing with communal violence and its threat.
6. Special riot forces like the present Rapid Action Force (RAF) should be created in all states and equipped with modern weaponry.
7. Promotion of secular values and approach through the mass media, voluntary organisations ect.