The Mughals Dynasty | General Awareness - Bank Exams PDF Download

Introduction

• The Mughal dynasty in India descended from two distinguished Central Asian lineages.
• Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India, was related to Timur (from his father's line) and to Chengiz Khan (through his mother).
• Babur succeeded his father as ruler of Farghana (in present-day Uzbekistan) but soon lost that kingdom.
• Financial difficulties, the threat from the Uzbeks to Kabul and an invitation from disaffected nobles (including Daulat Khan) and rulers opposed to Ibrahim Lodi encouraged Babur to seek opportunity in India.

Babur (1526 - 1530)

• Lineage: Babur traced his ancestry to the Timurid dynasty.
• First Battle of Panipat (1526): Invited by Daulat Khan and others, Babur invaded to displace Ibrahim Lodi and defeated him at Panipat.
• He adopted and adapted Ottoman (Rumi) military devices and tactics and made extensive use of gunpowder weapons and field artillery, contributing to his victories.
• Battle of Khanwa (1527): Babur defeated Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) of Mewar, consolidating Mughal control of the Gangetic plains.
• Battle of Chanderi (1528): Defeated the Rajput ruler Medini Rai of Chanderi.
• Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi (brother of Ibrahim Lodi).
• After these victories he assumed the title Ghazi and declared the campaign as a form of Jihad.
• He died in 1530. His tomb is at Aram Bagh in Agra; his body was later taken to Aram Bagh in Kabul.

Literature

• Babur himself composed the Tuzuk-i-Baburi. He is also associated with a Masnavi and a Turkish translation of a known Sufi work.
• The Tuzuk-i-Baburi was translated into Persian and is known as the Baburnama; a Persian version is associated in tradition with Abdur Rahim Khankhana.

Architecture and Urban Works

• Babur established a taste for formal charbagh gardens in India, introduced systematic garden layouts with channels and running water.
• He is credited with building mosques at Kabulibagh, Panipat and Sambhal (Rohilkhand).

Humayun (1530 - 1556)

• Accession: Humayun became emperor on 29 December 1530 at the age of 23.
• He made the political error of dividing responsibilities and territories among his brothers - Kamran, Hindal and Askari - which weakened central control.
• Battle of Chausa (1539): Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah Suri and escaped.
• Battle of Kanauj (Bilgram) (1540): Humayun was decisively defeated by Sher Shah who founded the Sur dynasty.
• The period 1540-1555 is known as the temporary eclipse of the Mughals; Humayun spent years in exile before returning.
• Recapture (1555): With the support of loyal officers such as Bairam Khan, Humayun defeated the last Sur ruler, Sikandar Shah Suri, at the Battle of Sirhind (1555) and re-established Mughal rule.

Humayun

• Death: Humayun died from an accidental fall from the staircase of his library, the Sher Mandal at Purana Qila (Puranakila) in Delhi on 24 January 1556.
• He was respected as an accomplished mathematician and astronomer and was honoured with the title Insan-i-Kamil (the Perfect Man).

Literature

• Humayun's biography, the Humayun Namah, was written by his half-sister Gulbadan Begum; the language of the work mixes Turkish and Persian.

Architecture and Urban Works

• The construction of Puranakila (Purana Qila) began during Humayun's time though many structures were completed later by rulers of the Sur dynasty.
• Humayun's Tomb in Delhi (commissioned by his widow Haji Begum) is notable as an early example in India of a double-domed mausoleum and is sometimes regarded as a precursor to the design of the Taj Mahal. Its architect is recorded as Mirak Mirza Ghias.
• In 1533 Humayun founded the city of Dinpanah (refuge of the world) in Delhi as a royal capital.

Sher Shah Suri (1540 - 1545)

• Founder of the Sur dynasty and the second prominent Afghan power in northern India after the Lodis.
• His direct rule of five years (1540-1545) left durable administrative and infrastructural reforms.
• He commissioned major structures such as Purana Qila (Old Fort) and the Sasaram Mausoleum.
• The celebrated Hindi epic Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi is associated with this period in tradition.
• Sher Shah consolidated and reformed the administrative system inherited from the Sultanate era and introduced practical innovations to governance.
• He organised central administration and appointed key officials such as Diwan-i-Wizarat/Wazir (revenue and finance), Diwan-i-Ariz (head of the army), Diwan-i-Rasalat (foreign affairs), Diwan-i-Insha (communications) and Barid (intelligence).
• The empire was divided into sarkars, and each sarkar contained several parganas. Local officers included the Shiqdar (responsible for law and order), Amin (land revenue officer), Fotedar (treasurer) and Karkuns (accountants).
• The village (mauza) was the lowest administrative unit; various iqtas (land grants/units) were also in use.
• Sher Shah introduced a systematic land revenue assessment: officials such as Amils and Qanungos maintained records; land was surveyed and classified as good, middle or bad, and the state's share was fixed at about one-third of the average produce, payable in cash or in kind.
• He introduced a new silver coin, the Rupiya, a currency unit that remained influential for centuries.
• To improve communications and trade he constructed the Shahi (Royal) Road linking the Indus Valley to the Gangetic plains and Bengal; this long route later formed the basis of the Grand Trunk (GT) Road.
• He established sarais (rest-houses) at regular intervals which functioned as lodging, trade centres and message/post stations; many sarais later developed into market towns. Each sarai was managed by a Shahana (custodian).
• For military organisation he introduced measures such as horse-branding (a practice dating from earlier rulers) and maintained a royal force sometimes referred to in records of the time; these practices secured better control over cavalry and logistics.

Sher Shah Suri

Akbar (1556 - 1605)

Akbar

• Accession: Akbar was coronated at Kalanaur; he became emperor as a teenager (formally crowned in 1556 at about 13-14 years of age).
• During Akbar's early reign the regent Bairam Khan acted on behalf of the young emperor; Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan's regency roughly from 1556 to 1560.
• Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Bairam Khan represented Akbar and defeated Hemu Vikramaditya, securing the throne for the Mughals.
• Akbar's armies gradually extended Mughal control to Kashmir, Sindh, Orissa, large parts of Central India, and later Gujarat (1572-1573) and Bengal (1574-1576).
• His last significant campaign was the capture of Asirgarh, leading to annexation of parts of Khandesh (around 1601).
• In 1562 Akbar married the daughter of Raja Bharmal, a match that created a lasting alliance between most Rajput rulers and the Mughals (excluding a few states such as Mewar for some time).
• To celebrate the victory in Gujarat Akbar commissioned the construction of the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri.
• He fought the famous Battle of Haldighati (1576) against Maharana Pratap; Maharana resisted fiercely though he was tactically defeated.
• Akbar founded the Ibadatkhana (a hall for religious discussion) at Fatehpur Sikri and promoted inter-religious dialogue.
• In 1582 he propounded an eclectic order referred to as Din-i-Ilahi (also transcribed as Tauhid-i-Ilahi), which reflected his policy of religious conciliation; courtiers such as Birbal, Abul Fazl and Faizi are associated with his intellectual circle.
• Akbar reformed land revenue by standardising measurements and assessments; his revenue system is known as Todar Mal Bandobast or the Zabti system (after his revenue minister Todar Mal).
• He introduced the Mansabdari System to organise the civil and military nobility and to assign ranks, pay and responsibilities to officials and commanders.

Main Events During the Reign of Akbar (selected)

• 1562 - Abolition of slavery.
• 1563 - Abolition of pilgrimage tax.
• 1564 - Abolition of the jizya tax on non-Muslims.
• 1575 - Construction of the Ibadatkhana at Fatehpur Sikri.
• 1578 - A series of religious discussions (a 'Parliament of Religions') held in the Ibadatkhana.
• 1579 - Proclamation of certain administrative or courtly reforms (recorded as the proclamation of 'Marhar' in some traditions).
• 1582 - Proclamation of Tauhid-i-Ilahi (Din-i-Ilahi).
• 1575-1576 - The empire was organised into about 12 provinces (the number later rose after southern conquests).
• 1582 - Introduction of the 'Dahsala' revenue assessment system (a ten-year average method) by Todar Mal.
• 1573-1574 - Formalisation and spread of the Mansabdari System.

Navratnas (Nine-Jewels) of Akbar's Court

• Abdul Rahim - noted as a Hindi scholar and poet.
• Abul Fazl - principal advisor and chronicler (author of the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama).
• Birbal - famed for his wit and as a courtier.
• Tansen - celebrated musician and singer.
• Todar Mal - finance and revenue administrator.
• Mullah Do Piaza - advisor.
• Raja Man Singh - senior general (senapati) and notable Rajput noble.
• Faizi - poet and scholar.
• Hamim Humam - court physician.

Jahangir (1605 - 1627)

Jahangir

• Jahangir is recorded as having ordered the execution of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjun Dev, after the latter's association with the rebellious Prince Khusrau.
• One major setback of his reign was the loss of Kandahar to Persia in 1622.
• His marriage in 1611 to Mehr-un-Nisa (later titled Nur-Jahan) was a turning point: she became a powerful influence at court and in administration.
• Jahangir instituted a public mechanism to receive petitions, known as the Zanjir-i-Adl or Chain of Justice, displayed outside the Agra palace.
• English envoys such as Captain Hawkins (1608-1611) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619) visited his court, establishing direct European diplomatic contact.
• The cultivation of tobacco began to be recorded during his reign (introduced by the Portuguese), and painting flourished to new heights in the Mughal atelier standard.

Shah Jahan (1628 - 1658)

Shah Jahan

• Shah Jahan's rule is often described as the 'Golden Age' of Mughal architecture and imperial patronage.
• European travellers and merchants such as François Bernier, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier and the Italian adventurer Niccolao Manucci visited India during his reign and left detailed accounts.
• Famous monumental works of his period include the Taj Mahal (Agra), the Moti Masjid (Agra), Jama Masjid and the Red Fort (Delhi), among others.
• The last years of his reign were marred by a brutal War of Succession among his sons (Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad); Aurangzeb emerged victorious and placed Shah Jahan under house arrest for the final eight years of his life.

Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658 - 1707)

Aurangzeb Alamgir

• During Aurangzeb's long reign the empire reached its greatest territorial extent: he annexed the southern Sultanates of Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687), and the empire stretched from Kashmir to Jinji and from the Hindukush to Chittagong.
• His policy provoked several regional uprisings and sustained local resistance: the Jat peasantry around Mathura, the Satnami movement in Punjab, and the Bundelas in Bundelkhand were among those who rebelled.
• In 1675 Aurangzeb ordered the arrest and execution of the ninth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, an act that intensified Sikh resistance.
• He caused a serious rift in Mughal-Rajput relations by annexing Marwar in 1678 after the death of Raja Jaswant Singh, undermining what had been a durable alliance.
• Aurangzeb's personal reputation was austere; he was sometimes described as a Darvesh (ascetic) or Zinda Pir; he also issued orders forbidding the practice of sati at certain times.
• After Aurangzeb's death the empire weakened steadily; his successors were less capable and central control disintegrated in many regions.

Note

• Ambitious nobles and provincial governors increasingly became contenders for power after Aurangzeb; the Sayyid brothers (known in tradition as 'king-makers') dominated the throne-making process for a time.
• One of the generals of Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali (also called Ahmad Shah Durrani), invaded India repeatedly between 1748-1767 and defeated the Marathas at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The Maratha forces at Panipat were led by Sadashiv Rao Bhau while the Peshwa was Balaji Bajirao.
• Later, a Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II, joined with regional rulers such as Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in the Battle of Buxar (1764) against the British; they were defeated.

Later Mughals and the Decline of Mughal Power

• When Aurangzeb died (1707) a war of succession followed among his sons; Muazzam (later known as Bahadur Shah I) emerged victorious after defeating Muhammad Azam Shah at the Battle of Jajau.

Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712)

• After the war of succession Muazzam became Bahadur Shah.
• He rolled back several of Aurangzeb's severe policies and adopted a more tolerant approach towards Hindu rulers.
• He released the Maratha prince Shahu and sought accommodation with Rajputs, Jats and Bundelas.
• He offered high mansabs to Sikh leaders such as Guru Gobind Singh at times but also faced Sikh revolts under leaders like Banda Bahadur.
• He has been described in some accounts as 'Shah-i-Bekhabar' because of his large grants; tradition notes that on his death his sons deferred burial rites in a dispute over succession.

Jahandar Shah (1712-1713)

• Came to power with the backing of the noble Zulfiquar Khan.
• He was inclined to pleasure and statecraft was heavily influenced by Zulfiquar Khan.
• He abolished the jizya again in his period but introduced systems (recorded in tradition as izara) that were sometimes seen as burdensome; he also granted chauth and sardeshmukhi concessions to the Marathas.

Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)

• Farrukhsiyar reached the throne with the military and political support of the Sayyid brothers (Abdullah Khan and Hasan Ali).
• The Sayyid brothers effectively controlled administration during his reign.
• Farrukhsiyar's reign is noted for a measure of religious tolerance and the abolition of a pilgrimage tax; in 1717 the British East India Company received a formal royal farman confirming trading privileges, a document that later had far-reaching effects.
• The Sayyid brothers ultimately deposed Farrukhsiyar with political support from rising Maratha leaders such as Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath.

Muhammad Shah (1719-1748)

• The Sayyid brothers were removed from power (killed by nobles under leaders such as Asaf Jah), after which the court again fragmented.
• Muhammad Shah (nicknamed 'Rangeela' in some accounts) was more indulgent and less effective; the irreversible decline of central Mughal authority intensified under his reign.
• Provincial governors grew semi-independent; important regional states such as Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad emerged with real autonomy.
• In 1739 Nadir Shah of Persia invaded and sacked Delhi, accelerating Mughal decline.

Ahmad Shah (1748-1754)

• Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani) invaded Mughal territories repeatedly in the late 1740s and early 1750s; the empire ceded control of regions such as Multan and Punjab to Abdali.

Alamgir II (1754-1759)

• During his nominal reign the Marathas became steadily more powerful, occupying Delhi and controlling parts of Punjab and Lahore at times.
• The Battle of Plassey (1757) - a pivotal event in the establishment of British power in Bengal - occurred during this broader period of Mughal decline.

Shah Alam II (1760-1806)

• Supported briefly by the Maratha Sardar Sadashiv Rao Bhau, Shah Alam II experienced the turbulence of mid-eighteenth century conflicts.
• He lived through the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and the Battle of Buxar (1764); these years marked decisive shifts in power between imperial, regional and European actors.
• He was at times exiled from Delhi by Abdali and was later restored by Maratha intervention in 1771.
• In the 1780s he suffered physical injury at the hands of Rohilla chiefs and his restoration to the throne was arranged by leading Maratha nobles such as Mahadji Scindia.

Akbar II (1806-1837)

• During his reign Akbar II conferred the title of 'Raja' on social reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• By 1835 the British East India Company had effectively removed the Mughal emperor's name from coinage and reduced imperial functions to nominal status.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857)

• Also known as Bahadur Shah Zafar, he was the last Mughal emperor; his reign overlapped with the Revolt of 1857.
• Following that rebellion the British formally abolished the Mughal imperial system on 1 November 1858 with Queen Victoria's proclamation, and Bahadur Shah II was deposed and exiled.

Reasons for the Decline of the Mughals

• Political instability after Aurangzeb: Frequent succession wars and weak emperors reduced central authority.
• Powerful nobles: Many emperors became figureheads while powerful nobles and regional governors exercised real power, fragmenting administration.
• Military and administrative weaknesses: Invasions by Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (mid-eighteenth century) exposed military vulnerabilities.
• Emergence of autonomous regions: Provinces such as Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad became semi-independent, reducing imperial revenues and control.
• Religious and social policy: Aurangzeb's orthodox policies alienated many groups (Marathas, Rajputs, Jats) and created long-term resistance.
• Economic disruption: Continuous warfare, loss of revenue-producing provinces and the drain of resources weakened imperial finances.

Relevance to Modern Engineering and Technology (General Awareness for CE, CSE, EE students)

• Civil Engineering (CE) - Mughal contributions relevant to practice: Mughal monuments illustrate advanced masonry techniques, load-bearing dome construction (including early use of double domes), and durable stone and brick construction. Formal gardens with channels (charbagh) demonstrate historical hydraulic and landscape engineering, including water distribution, gradient control and the use of step wells and channels. The Grand Trunk Road (Shahi Road) exemplifies early long-distance road planning, staging posts (sarais) and planned trade routes that inform modern transport and logistics planning.
• Computer Science Engineering (CSE) - historical administrative systems as information systems: Mughal revenue administration (roles such as Qanungo, Amil, Karkun) depended on systematic record-keeping, classification of land (good/middle/bad) and periodic surveys - an early example of data collection, storage and processing that is conceptually similar to modern databases, data classification and information workflows. The Diwan-i-Insha (communications department) and the network of sarais served as an organised message and logistics network analogous to packet routing and staging in distributed systems.
• Electrical Engineering (EE) - technology and systems thinking: Though the Mughals did not practice electrical technology as known today, their era saw advances in metallurgy, minting and mechanical systems (water wheels, fountain hydraulics). Military adoption of gunpowder and field artillery required controlled chemical and metallurgical processes, logistics and supply chains - topics of interest for systems engineering and materials science. The organisation of large building projects (Taj Mahal, forts) illustrates principles of project management, resource allocation and structural reliability relevant to engineering practice.
• Broader lessons for engineers: Study of Mughal administrative, architectural and infrastructural systems encourages cross-disciplinary thinking - combining materials science, structural design, hydraulics, surveying, data organisation and logistics - and emphasises sustainability, long-term maintenance and the social context for technical solutions.

Short Summary

• The Mughal dynasty was founded by Babur in 1526 and produced a sequence of rulers whose policies and personalities shaped South Asian history for over three centuries.
• Key emperors include Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb; each contributed to administration, literature, art and architecture in different ways.
• Administrative and infrastructural reforms by rulers such as Sher Shah Suri impacted revenue, currency and road systems; Akbar's reforms consolidated the state and introduced durable systems of revenue and nobility organisation.
• From the late seventeenth century the empire weakened because of internal succession struggles, powerful nobles, regional autonomy and repeated external invasions, culminating in the formal end of Mughal sovereignty in the mid-nineteenth century.