Nitin Singhania: Summary of Indian Theatre | Additional Study Material for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• Excavated ruins at Sitabena & Jogimara caves represent the world’s oldest amphitheatres.
• Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra, written in the period between 200 BC & 200 AD and is the first formal treatise on dramaturgy. In it, ten types of play - from one-act play to ten acts have been described covering all aspects of classical Sanskrit literature.

Classical Sanskrit Theatre

Sanskrit Drama

• Theatre in India began as a narrative art form.
• Sanskrit word ‘nataka’- derived from the root word ‘nata’ meaning a dancer.
• Rupaka, Drishyakvya & Preksakavya were others also used to describe drama.
• In ancient India, plays of two types:
  (i) Lokadharmi: Realistic depictions of daily life.
  (ii) Natyadharmi: Conventional plays with more stylised narration & overt symbolism.
  Natyadharmi dance pose
• First example of classical Sanskrit drama- Sariputraprakarana by Ashvaghosh, an eminent philosopher. It was a nine-act play.
• Bhasa, another playwright- composed 13 plays between 4th-5th century B.C.
• Sudraka- first to introduce the essence of conflict in his play Mricchakatika. This play featured a hero, heroine & an antagonist for the first time.
• Kalidasa- most popular among Sanskrit playwrights.
• His three works - Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashi & Shakuntalam -finest examples and portray the eternal conflict between desire & duty.
• Other examples - Uttaramacharitra and Mahaviracharitra by Bhavabhuti, Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta, and Ratnavali by Harshavardhan.
• As per classical Sanskrit tradition, plays were categorised into ten types -
  namely Anka, Bhana, Dima, Ithamgra, Nataka, Prahasana, Prakarna, Svakama, Vithi and Vyayog.
• Natya Shastra describes only two of these - Nataka & Prakarna.
  Natya Shastra
• Classical Sanskrit play had some rigid conventions:
  (i) Were four to seven-act Slavs.
  (ii) Always had happy-endings.
  (iii) The protagonist was male who would always achieve the object of his desire at the end.
  (iv) Well defined opening, progression, development, pause, and conclusion.
• Sanskrit plays followed ritualistic progression as follows:
  (i) The play started with Purva-raga i.e. pre-play rituals performed behind the curtain.
  (ii) After this, Sutradhar (stage manager & director), entered the stage to worship the deity dressed in white.
  (iii) After that, the leading lady was summoned and was Sutradhar announced time and place of the play.
• Theatre accommodated four hundred persons.
• Stages two-storeyed, upper floor for representing the celestial sphere & lower one represented terrestrial sphere.
• Curtains were used & masks weren’t.
• Characters in Sanskrit plays were classified into three kinds:
  (i) Nayaka (Hero or the Protagonist)- males- could be Lalita (Kind-hearted), Shanta (Calm & composed), Uddhata (Agitated or arrogant) etc. The hero may also be ‘Pratinayaka’ (Antagonist) like Ravana, Duryodhana, etc
  (ii) Nayika (Heroine)- females- could be queens, friends, courtesans (ganika), divine lady (Divya).
  (iii) Vidusaka (Clown), the comic character plays a vital role in the plays. He is the noble and good-hearted & friend of a hero who questions the prevailing social norms through satire and spoke Prakrit traditionally.
  Vidusaka 

➢ Reasons for the decline of Sanskrit Theatre

• Sanskrit dramatists began to diverge towards poetry.
• The rigid orthodoxy of Sanskrit theatre restricted the creative space of new playwrights.
• As Sanskrit became more embellished, it lost popularity among the masses.
• It was increasingly confined to the religious sphere.
• With the advent of Muslim rulers, Sanskrit theatre took a definite backseat, as dance and music gained patronage.

➢ Koothiyattam (Koodiyattam)Koothiyattam 

• India’s oldest continuing form of theatre.
• Has survived since 10th century A.D. in Kerala.
• Completely adheres to rules laid down in Natya Shastra.
• The traditional privilege of Chakyar & Nambiar castes of Kerala.
• Performed in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Malayalam, with Mizhavu and Edakka providing the background music.
• Begins with Nirvahana, a recollection of the past events of the story.
• Then the story unfolds in a leisurely fashion with commentaries on social, philosophical, and political behaviour.
• Marsi Madhu Chakyar- leading exponent.

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Folk Theatre 

• Traditional folk theatre- reflects various aspects of local lifestyle including social norms, beliefs & customs.
• Sanskrit theatre- More urban-oriented & sophisticated
• Folk theatre- Rural roots & rustic flavour was reflected in the dramatic style involved.
• Folk theatres of 15th - 16th century A.D.- devotional themes. Later they started adopting love ballads and accounts of local heroes and thus adopted more secular tones.
• Indian folk theatre-
  Classified into three categories as follows:
  (i) Ritual Theatre
  (ii) Theatre of Entertainment
  (iii) South Indian Theatre

➢ Ritual Theatre

Became popular during the Bhakti movement as a means for communicating faith to God.

Some of the popular examples include:

1. Ankia Nat

• Traditional one-act play of Assam.
• Started by famous Vaishnava Saint Shankaradeva and his disciple Mahadeva in 16th century A.D.
• Performed in the style of an opera.
• Depicts the life of Krishna.
• Sutradhar or narrator is accompanied by a group of musicians called Gayan Bayan Mandali who play the ‘khol' and cymbals.
• Unique feature- use of masks.
  Ankia Nat

2. Kala

• Ancient folk theatre of the Vaishanvite tradition.
• Lifes and incarnations of Vishnu.
• Popular branches- Dashavatar Kala, Gopal Kala and Gaulan Kala.

3. Ramlila

• Popular folk theatre in the region of Uttar Pradesh.
• Enactment of Ramayana during the period before Dussehra.
• Performed by male actors, who perform the role of Sita as well.
  Ramlila

4. Raslila

• Dance drama enactment of love stories of Krishna and Radha, popular in Gujarat.
  Raslila

5. Bhuta

• Bhuta, which means spirit, is a traditional practice of worshipping dead ancestors, prevalent in the Kannada district of Karnataka.

6. Ramman

• Ritualistic theatre of Garhwal region of Uttarakhand.
• Dedicated to Bhumiyal Devta, the local deity.
• Listed in UNESCO’s Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
• People of Bhandari caste wear sacred mask symbolizing Narasimha (half-man and half-lion).
  Ramman

➢ 

• This form- more secular in narration & storytelling.
• Focused on stories of love, valour and sociocultural traditions.

1. Bhavai

• Folk theatre form of Gujarat & Rajasthan.
• Regions of Kutchh & Kathiawar.
• Extensive use of dance to narrate a series of small plays, known as Vesha or Swanga.
• Theme- Romantic.
• Accompanied by semi-classical music, played with Bhungala, Jhanjha & tabla.
• Sutradhara is known as Nayaka.
  Bhavai

2. Daskathia

• Odisha
• There are two narrators - Gayaka, chief singer & Palia, co-narrator.
• Narration- accompanied by dramatic music composed using a wooden musical instrument called Kathia.
• Close variant- Chhaiti Ghoda, which uses - dhol & mohuri - & three nanators.
  Daskathia

3. Garodas

• ‘Garoda’ community of Gujarat.
• Uses painted pictures to narrate stories of romance and valour.

4. Jatra

• Eastern India
• Is an open-air performance that was initiated by Vaishnava saint Sri Chaitanya.
• He used Jatra to propagate teachings of Krishna, during his travels through rural Bengal.
• Variants- Rama Jatra, Shiv Jatra & Chandi Jatra.
• In Odisha, a popular form of street theatre known as Sahi Jatra is prevalent.

5. Kariyila

• Open-air theatre.
• Foothills of Himachal Pradesh.
• Staged during village fairs and festivals at night.
• The performance comprises a series of small plays & skits.

6. Maach

• Malwa in Madhya Pradesh.
• Originated in Ujjain (17th century A.D).
• Based on mythological themes.
• Later, included romantic folk tales.
• Unique feature- dialogues, which are delivered in the form of couplets known as Rangat Dohas.
  Maach

7. Nautanki

• An offshoot of Swang.
• A most popular form of theatre in North India, which finds mention in Abul Fazl’s Ain-e-Akbari.
• Themes- historical, social and folk tales.
• Dialogues are delivered in lyrically, accompanied by beats of a drum called Nagara.
• Two schools of Nautanki seated around Kanpur & Lucknow gained importance.

8. Oja-Pali

• Unique narrative theatre form of Assam.
• Associated with the festival of Manasa or serpent goddess.
• Narration is a prolonged affair, with three distinct parts - Baniya Khanda, Bhatiyali Khanda and Deva Khanda.
• Oja- the main narrator & Palis are the members of the chorus.
   Oja-Pali

9. Powada

• Lauds the heroic deeds of Shivaji.
• Are operatic ballads depicting stories of valour & sung by folk musicians known as Gondhalis and Shahirs.
• Popular in Maharashtra.
  Powada

10. Swang

• Punjab and Haryana.
• Musical dramas, sung through verses, accompanied by the music of ektara, harmonium, sarangi, dholak & khartal.

11. Tamasha

• Maharashtra
• Known for its humour and erotic content.
• Unique feature- The presence of female actors, who play even male roles.
• Accompanied by Lavani songs.

12. Villu Pattu

• ‘Villu Pattu’ means bow-song.
• Popular in Deccan.
• Stories of Ramayana are narrated using bow-shaped instruments.
   Villu Pattu

13. Bhand Pather

• Jammu and Kashmir.
• Involves contemporary social satire or even mythical stories.
• Secular in outlook, although performed by Muslims.
• Has music, dance & drama.
  Bhand Pather

14. Bhaona

• Folk Theatre of Assam, especially the Majuli Island.
• To spread religious & moral messages.
• It is a presentation of Ankia Naat and Vaishnavite themes are common.
• Sutradhar (Narrator) narrates play & sings verses from holy texts.
• Songs & music are a part of it.

15. Dashavatar

• By farmers of Konkan region, notably Sindhudurg (Maharashtra) & North Goa.
• To honour ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu.
• Has two parts: ‘poorvaranga’ (initial part) & ‘Uttara-ranga’(the second part which is the main act and is based on mythological stories).
  Dashavatar

16. Naqal or Bhand

• Is mimicry based performance.
• In Punjab & adjoining areas.
• The performing artist is often called ‘Behroopiya’ or ‘Naqalchi’ (impersonator). He uses comedy, absurdities, wit & humour.
• Performed by two artists.

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➢ Theatres of South India

• When Sanskrit classical theatre started to decline in North India (around 8th century A.D), it gained popularity in southern parts India.
• The speciality of theatrical traditions of South- emphasis on dance as compared to the emphasis on music in Northern India.
• Some popular theatres of South India are explained below.

1. Yakshagana

• Oldest theatre traditions.
• Prevalent till date in Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka.
• Originated in royals courts of Vijaynagar Empire & was performed by a particular community called Jakkula Varu.
• Descriptive dance-drama enacted by a single artist.
• Popular variants- Laliti ln Maharashtra, Bhavai in Gujarat, and Gandharva Gana in Nepal.
• Popular Yakshagana Plays include Garudachalam by Obayya Mantri, Krishna-Hiramani by Srinddha & Sugriva & Vijayam by Rudra Kavi.
  Yakshagana

2. Burra Katha

• Popular dance-drama tradition of Andhra Pradesh.
• Derives name from Burra - The percussion instrument used extensively during the performance. The performance consists of a main artist or narrator and two vanthas or co-artists who provide rhythm as well as the chorus.
  Burra Katha

3. Pagati Veshaalu

• Popular in Telangana region & Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh.
• Primarily a role-playing act, revolving around a principal character known as vesham (disguise) & other sub-characters.

4. Bayalata

• Open-air theatre tradition of Karnataka.
• Performed during the worship of the local deity.
• Five types of Bayalatas - Dasarat, Sannata, Doddata, Parijata and Yakshagana.
• Stories based on the love of Radha-Krishna.
• Parijata & Yakshagana are narrated by a single Sutradhar while other three forms are performed in a chorus of three-four, aided by a Vidushaka.
  Bayalata

5. Tal-Maddale

• Tal- a kind of cymbal & Maddale- a kind of drum.
• A considered predecessor of Yakshagana.
• Performed while sitting & without any costumes, dance or acting.
• Narration is done by a Bhagavata who is aided by a group of Arthadharis.

6. Theyyam

• Performed in Kerala.
• Similar to Bhuta Kola in Karnataka.
• Open theatre and performed in front of the local temples to honour the spirit of ancestors.
• Themes of Vaishnavism, Shaktism, and Shaivism are now common.
• Actors wear elaborate headgear & colourful costumes.
  Theyyam

7. Krishna Attam

• Colourful dance-drama tradition of Kerala.
• Originated in the mid 17th century.
• Based on works of Krishna Geethi.
• It is a carnival that lasts for eight days, with performances in eight consecutive nights narrating the story of Sri Krishna.
  Krishna Attam

8. Kuruvanji

• Originated 300 years ago.
• Characterised by classical Tamil poetry & songs.
• First Kuruvanji- composed by Thirukutarajappa Kaviyar.
• Basic theme- love-struck heroine.
• Kuruvanji means ‘fortune-teller’ who predicts the fate of the heroine.
• Performed in a dance ballet form with Bharatnatyam being the principal dance form in Tamil Nadu.

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Modern Indian Theatre

• India’s post-medieval or modern theatre got shape during the colonial era.
• Availability of translations of Sanskrit texts & Western Classics gave an impetus to the theatre.
• Works of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Shakespeare were adapted.
• Western Proscenium style of theatre- emerged in 18th & 19th Century.
• Theatres sprang up in Calcutta in 19th century like Belgachia Natyashala, Shobhabazar Natyashala, etc.
• Indians developed their theatrical style by combining the features of Western & Indian style.
• Theatres also became commercialized.
• Common themes- social evils like dowry, caste system, religious hypocrisy and even political affairs.
• British Government even imposed the Dramatic Performances Act in 1876 to counter the growing political awareness.
• Parsi Theatres- famous in Western India during the 1850s-1920s- plays were written in regional languages like Gujarati & Marathi. Colourful backdrops and music were essential. The themes were romance, humour, melodrama, etc.
• From the 1930s, with the advent of cinema, Parsi producers went into film-making.
• Regional theatres of Bengal, Maharashtra etc, also gained prominence.
• Rabindranath Tagore, a celebrated playwright wrote his first play at the age of 20, Valmiki Pratibha.
• His famous works- Roktokoribi (Red Oleanders), Chitrangada, Post-Office, etc.
• His themes- nationalism, spirituality, socio-political situation, etc.
• Other personalities- Prasanna Kumar Thakur, Girish Chandra Ghosh, Deenabandhu Mitra (Nildarpan), etc.
• Prithvi Theatre - established in 1942, by Prithviraj Kapoor. Was a moving theatre with an entourage of 150 artists & held more than 2000 plays.
• In 1978 a permanent theatre was opened in Mumbai and it still exists.
• In 1943, the Indian People’s Theatre Association (ITPA) was formed, as a cultural wing of the Communist Party.
• Was disbanded in 1947, it played an important role in the further development of theatre.
• Their themes- Bengal Famines, etc.
• Notable personalities (ITPA)- Balraj Sahni, Prithviraj Kapoor, Bijon Bhattacharya, Ritwik Ghatak, Utpal Dutt, etc.
• IPTA exists in Chattisgarh, Punjab, and West Bengal.
• Kalakshetra Manipur- formed by Heisnam Kanhailal in 1969 in Manipur to keep the traditional theatre alive.
• Ratan Thiyam established Chorus Repertory Theatre in 1976.
• Establishment of Sangeet Natak Akademi (Music and Performing Arts Akademi) in 1952- For promoting performing arts including theatre gave a further impetus to the development of theatre in India.
• National School of Drama under Ibrahim Alkazi- produced great theatre personalities.
• Samsa (Sami Venkatadri Iyer) and Adya Rangachary are noted Kannada dramatist and playwright.
• Kuppali Venkatappa Puttappa (Kuvempu)- noted actor, playwright of Karnataka.
• Nadu, Veeresalingam Pantulu of Andhra Pradesh. Sreekandan Nair of Kerala, Bharatendu Harishchandra & Jaishankar Prasad.
• BV Karanth- known for his contribution to Andhra, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh theatre.
• KV Subbanna- formed the acclaimed NINASAM theatre group and is also a winner of Ramon Magsaysay award.
• Other noted modem personalities are- Indira Parthasarathy, Girish Karnad, Habib Tanvir, Vijay Tendulkar, Badal Sarkar, Vijaya Mehta, Dharmavir Bharati, Mohan Rakesh, Chandrashekhar Kambar, and P. Lankesh.