Famine: Causes, Effects & Remedies | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Famine

• Throughout human history, famine has been a recurring issue, with instances dating back to 400 B.C. In past centuries, famine was often due to poor technology and stagnant economic systems, which limited access to food, particularly during regional natural disasters. However, food insecurity continues to persist in modern times, with the number of countries experiencing severe food shortages almost tripling since 1990. Despite sufficient global food supplies to feed the world's population, an estimated 20 percent of people in developing countries – more than 800 million individuals – still lack consistent and predictable access to food.
• Famine can be difficult to define and is often a politically sensitive topic. Various organizations and scholars have offered different definitions of famine, but some common aspects can be identified. Famine generally refers to a regional, rather than individual, failure of food production or distribution systems, leading to increased mortality due to starvation and associated diseases. It is often the result of a lengthy process in which people lose access to food over an extended period, typically covering two or more crop seasons. Famine also involves a deepening recession in the rural economy, affecting production, exchange, employment, and income for both farm and non-farm households.
• Famines typically occur in a few specific geographical regions and are characterized by nutritional intakes of less than 2000 calories per day and less than 30 grams of protein per day. This severe food scarcity leads to mass mortalities within a short duration. Factors contributing to famine include severe food shortages caused by conflict, drought, crop failure, demographic imbalances, governmental policies, and more. Widespread deaths due to diseases, starvation, and food scarcity are also common during famines, along with malnutrition and deficiency-related illnesses affecting a large portion of the population.
• Although organizations like FAO believe that the problem of starvation deaths has been mostly resolved worldwide, hunger remains a global issue. According to the Red Cross Society, a significant portion of Africa's population receives just enough food for survival, with daily intakes of less than 30 grams of food and 1500-1600 calories. This situation creates a disease-prone or epidemic-prone society, resembling a famine-like condition. Hunger-related deaths continue to occur in famine-prone areas, with FAO estimating that around 24,000 people die each day due to food shortages. Simple food availability is not enough to solve the problem, as approximately 1.2 billion people worldwide do not receive adequate calories and protein, leading to a persistent state of hunger.

Causes of famine

Africa

• Numerous countries worldwide are grappling with the issues of open and hidden hunger, with these problems being sporadic and not limited to a specific region. 
• However, Africa is facing a regional continuity challenge, as about 34 countries on the continent are experiencing these issues. 
• The worst affected are the nations in sub-Saharan Africa, including Sudan, Chad, Mauritania, and others stretching from Somalia to Sierra Leone and from Djibouti to Lesotho. 
• In contrast, a few African countries like Morocco, Egypt in North Africa, Zaire in Central Africa, and South Africa are in better condition concerning hunger.

Factors of Africa’s famine
Factors contributing to famine in Africa include climate uncertainty, dependence on primary activities, and poverty.
1. Climate uncertainty and dependence on primary activities:

• Sub-Saharan Africa has been experiencing drought since 1984, causing the region to become increasingly hot and dry. This has led to a decline in food availability.
• Countries such as Tanzania, Mozambique, and those in South West Africa have seen an increase in the frequency of floods, resulting in famine-like conditions. Both drought and floods are natural hazards that contribute to the persistence of famine in Africa.

2. Poverty:

• African countries with high poverty rates have limited purchasing power, making it difficult for them to buy food from the global market. While some international aid is provided, it often only covers basic survival needs and does not include protein-rich foods.
• International aid is not always based on standard medical norms. A significant portion of the population lives on less than $1.25 per day, according to the Human Development Report from 2009.
• Per capita income in many African countries is insufficient for providing adequate food. When crops fail, the income system collapses, exacerbating the problem.
• Since 1984, food shortages, famine, hunger, and starvation have become an ongoing crisis in Africa.

Tribal culture
Tribal culture in Africa plays a significant role in the issues faced by the continent, particularly in relation to food distribution and international relations. Many tribal societies are nomadic, meaning they do not settle in one place, but instead constantly move from one area to another. This can make it difficult for governments to provide services and support, including agricultural development.

• Tribal groups often do not recognize international borders, which can lead to conflicts and rivalries between neighboring countries, such as Rwanda-Burundi and Uganda-Kenya. These conflicts can result in large numbers of refugees and displaced persons who become heavily reliant on aid for survival.
• Additionally, tribal groups can contribute to issues in food distribution by looting and hoarding government-provided food. This, combined with a lack of government effort to transform agriculture and address the long-standing drought situation in Africa, exacerbates the problem.
• Furthermore, food politics play a significant role in the famine crisis in Africa. Developed countries and major food suppliers often engage in political bargaining, withholding food aid or providing low-quality food products, such as maize, wheat, and certain oilseeds, which may not be nutritionally adequate.
• In conclusion, the famine in Africa is not solely due to natural factors but is also heavily influenced by human factors, including tribal culture, government inaction, and food politics. Addressing these issues is crucial in order to alleviate the ongoing food crisis in the continent.

South Asia
South Asia has experienced the Green Revolution in many areas, but despite this, famine situations persist in several parts. Some factors contributing to this issue include:

• Drought and floods: Natural disasters such as floods, landslides, and earthquakes negatively impact many parts of South Asia, creating famine-like situations. Bangladesh is severely affected by floods, while Nepal faces floods and landslides. India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan also suffer from these disasters. Although there has been some progress in addressing these issues since the drought of 1966, regional continuity remains a problem.
• Low income and inadequate economic transformation: A significant percentage of the population in India and Bangladesh live below $1.25 per day, with 42% and 50% respectively. While Sri Lanka and the Maldives are better off, the overall size of the population facing this problem is still substantial.
• Social factors: According to Amartya Sen, famine is a social problem in South Asia. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) states that the Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) are the worst affected groups, primarily because they are landless. When crops fail, landless workers suffer the most.
• Family famine situations: In Bangladesh, families often face famine situations due to crop loss from floods. This leads to reduced income and exploitation by moneylenders, causing families to limit their food intake until the next cropping season. Mothers are often the worst affected, as they receive the least amount of food, leading to high female mortality rates and low sex ratios.
• Political and strategic factors: Political tensions and conflicts can force people to live in temporary shelters, further exacerbating the famine situation. Examples include the Herat province of Afghanistan, the Afghan war, Chakma tribe migration to India, and Kashmir refugees.
• Ineffective public distribution systems: When public distribution systems are not properly implemented, food does not reach its intended recipients. This leads to the development of a famine culture for socially neglected and displaced individuals.

Central and Andean America
Countries in Central and Andean America, stretching from Chile to the Dominican Republic, experience varying levels of famine. Some countries, such as Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, are in better economic conditions and thus face fewer issues related to famine. However, nations like Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Peru, and Ecuador are more severely impacted by food scarcity.
The primary causes of famine in these countries can be attributed to:

• Natural hazards and unpredictable climate: Droughts, hurricanes, and other natural disasters can severely impact agricultural output, leading to food shortages and famine in the affected areas.
• Tribal societies with limited economic involvement: Some tribal communities in these countries may not be fully integrated into the national economy, which can make it difficult for them to access resources and markets, further exacerbating the problem of food scarcity.
• Lack of alternative economic opportunities: In regions where agriculture is the primary source of income, a lack of alternate economic opportunities can make communities more vulnerable to food shortages when crops fail or natural disasters strike.

Overall, the regions experiencing famine in Central and Andean America are not uniform, with specific countries and communities facing more significant challenges due to a combination of factors. Efforts to address these issues must take into account the unique circumstances and needs of each affected area.

South East Asia
In Southeast Asia, countries like Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, the Philippines, East Timor, and South Sumatra have been affected by famine. There are several factors contributing to the prevalence of famine in these countries:

• Natural disasters: Drought and floods are common in this region, leading to crop failure and food scarcity. In Indonesia, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can also exacerbate the situation.
• Insufficient agricultural development: The lack of effective agricultural development programs in these countries hampers their ability to increase food production, making them more susceptible to famine.
• Poverty: Widespread poverty in these countries makes it difficult for people to access adequate food resources, compounding the effects of food shortages and further contributing to the prevalence of famine.

Eastern and northern Asia

• This is the area of drought and famine. The worst affected country is North Korea which witnessed the worst drought in 1996. A large number of the population is affected by poverty in these countries.
• China, North Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, South, and Central China has seasonal famine mainly due to floods.
• Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, south Siberia are often disturbed by drought and sleet fall.
• Steppe and chestnut regions of Russia are having fertile soil, but the drought is a problem.

Famines in India

India, a developing nation, has an economy and population that largely depend on agriculture. Despite advancements in this field, agriculture in India remains heavily reliant on climate conditions. For instance, summer rainfall is essential for proper irrigation. Insufficient rain leads to inadequate irrigation and crop failure, which in turn results in famines. Between the 11th and 17th centuries, numerous famines were caused by factors such as drought and lack of rainfall.
Some of the most devastating famines recorded in India include:

• The Bengal Famine of 1943
• The Chalisa Famine of 1783
• The Great Bengal Famine of 1770
• The Skull Famine of 1791
• The Orissa Famine of 1866
• The Deccan Famine of 1630
• The Deccan Famine of 1873
• The Agra Famine of 1837

These famines led to widespread food shortages and resulted in numerous deaths across the country. Among the most severe were the Great Bengal Famine of 1770, which caused approximately 10 million deaths; the Skull Famine of 1791, which resulted in around 11 million deaths; and the Chalisa Famine of 1783, which also claimed an estimated 11 million lives.

Effects of famine

• Famine and hunger have significant regional and global effects, leading to the creation of an undernourished, epidemic, and disease-prone society. Approximately 20% of the world's population is impacted by this issue, which has the potential to result in genetic degradation of humanity. Genetic scientists have expressed concerns about the large-scale survival of a society with poor health. These individuals often fall victim to money lenders, debt traps, and issues such as landlessness, child labor, and bonded labor.
• Political, social, and community tensions arise due to famine, leading to conflicts between neighboring countries. This exacerbates the poverty situation, resulting in increased mortality rates. Famine also contributes to stillbirths, underweight, and undernourished newborns. A 1996 UNICEF report showed that 67% of babies born in Bangladesh were underweight, with percentages in India, Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Tanzania being 53%, 48%, 36%, and 29%, respectively.
• Ethiopia has the lowest per capita calorie intake per day at 1600 calories, while the USA has 3600 calories. Famine generates a myriad of problems for society, including social and administrative mismanagement. Overall, the consequences of famine are far-reaching and complex, impacting various aspects of human life and society.

Remedies for the famine problem

• There is a need to have global effort to solve the problem
• Agriculture development: most of the sufferer countries are agrarian countries. They need to take a lesson from the countries like India, Pakistan. Most of the sub-Saharan countries need to improve irrigation and watershed management.
• To create alternate economy: it was first emphasised in 1863 Famine Commission Report on India. It gave a two-dimensional approach to solve the problem:
  • Agriculture development by developing irrigation
    (i) Revival of some old canal-like Sirhind canal
    (ii) Many Anicuts were developed
  • Revival of India’s traditional alternative economies like cottage industries and livestock.
• To provide relief operations for immediate help to suffering groups, international trade of food should be rationalized. Its shipment should be based on humanitarian grounds. Food politics should be avoided. Global hunger is due to three factors- social, economic and political. As Amartya Sen observes “While drought and other naturally occurring events may trigger famine conditions, it is government action or inaction that determines its severity, and often even whether or not famine will occur.”
• These countries need to improve their PDS so that all can get access to food. China has very effective PDS. Others should learn from China.
• There should be international cooperation for forecasting natural hazards, flood control, drought control etc.
• Famine affected countries are not technically advanced so developed countries should provide them support
• Population control measures should also be taken. Countries which have controlled population growth have also controlled famine.
• Social development is needed like literacy, education development
• Some international organizations like Red Cross, UNICEF, World Bank, NGOs should take an active part in famine eradication
• Other remedies:
  (i) Need of relief policy
  (ii) Maintenance of buffer stock
  (iii) Proper agro-climatic planning
  (iv) Use of modern and scientific methods such as remote sensing, GIS to accurately locate the crisis point.
• UNO Board on food and nutrition, FAO, WHO- all are concerned that foods are not needed only for life-saving but to provide better health.

Chronology of Famines

• 400 and 800, Rome, the population of the city of Rome fell by over 90%, due to famine and plague.
• 800-1000, Mayan Empire, severe drought killed millions of Mayan people.
• 1315-1317, Great Famine in Europe.
• 1601-1603, Russia, famine claimed up to one-third Russian population.
• 1630-1631, the Deccan famine in India kills 2,000,000.
• 1693-1694, France, famine in which killed 2 million people died
• 1696-1697, Finland, famine wiped out almost a third of the population
• 1708-1711, East Prussia, famine killed 250,000 people or 41% of its population
• 1783, Iceland, famine caused by Laki (volcano) eruption claiming one-fifth of Iceland’s population
• 1810, 1811, 1846, and 1849, China, Four famines together killed nearly 45 million people.**
• 1830, Cape Verde, famine killed almost half the population
• 1845-1849, Ireland, Potato Famine caused by potato blight and crop destruction killed more than 1 million people.
• 1850-1873, China, as a result of the Taiping Rebellion, drought, and famine, the population of China dropped by over 60 million people.**
• 1866, in India (Bengal and Orissa), one million perished due famined caused by limited rainfall.
• 1869, in India (northwest and central provinces), 1.5 million died due to famine caused by drought.
• 1870-1871, Persia, famine is believed to have caused the death of 2 million people.
• 1876-1879, China, famine in northern China killed 13 million people, caused by drought.**
• 1876-1878, in India, 5.25 million died in the Great Famine, caused by drought.
• 1892-1894, China, famine in northern China claimed 1 million casualties, caused by drought.
• 1896-1902, in India, famine was estimated to have caused 5 million deaths due to drought and widespread diseases.
• 1907, in East-central China, famine claimed 4 million people due to excess of rain.
• 1914-1918, Mount Lebanon region, famine during World War I which killed about a third of the population caused by war and Ottoman Empire’s policy toward the population of region.
• 1914-1918, Belgium, famine resulted from World War I.
• 1917-1919, Persia, as much as 1/4 of the population living in the north of Iran died in the famine.
• 1921-1922, the former USSR, especially Ukraine and Volga region, lost about 1/3 of its population, or about 9 million people, caused by drought and war.
• 1928-1929, in Northern China, famine caused by drought resulted in 3 million deaths.
• 1932-1933, Soviet famine in Ukraine (Holodomor), some parts of Ukraine and North Caucasus area lost an estimated 10 million people killed by famine resulting from Stalin’s policy of forced collectivization.**
• 1932-1933, Kazakhstan, famine killed 1.2-1.5 million, due to Stalin’s policies of collectivization as above.
• 1936-1938, Sichuan, China, famine killed an estimated 5 million people.
• 1942-1944, Bengali Famine in India took between 1.5-3 million casualties, partly due to war, British policy failures, crop failures, food hoarding.
• 1946-1947, the Soviet Union, famine caused roughly 1.2 million deaths due to poor harvest and policy failures.
• 1959-1961, China, Great Leap Forward / The Great Chinese Famine. The official statistic is 20 million deaths caused by droughts, floods, and poor government policy.**
• 1965-1967, Bihar, India, famine caused by drought was responsible for 1.5 million deaths.
• 1967-1970, Biafra, Nigeria famine took more than 1.5 million lives caused by civil war.
• 1968-1972, Sahel drought created a famine that killed a million people,. causes were drought, but worsened by corruption and mismanagement of international aid.
• 1974, Bangladesh, famine claimed between 500,000 to 1.8 millions lived due to drought.
• 1975-1979, Cambodia, under the Khmer Rouge, an estimated 2 million Cambodians lost their lives to
• murder, forced labor, and famine.
• 1983-1985, Sahel Belt, Africa, 22 million people died in the region due to prolonged drought originating in the late 1970s.**
• 1984, Ethiopia, famine claimed 600,000 to 1 million casualties, caused by war, and drought.
• 1996, North Korea, famine killed roughly 0.6-1 million casualties, due to poor harvests and policy failures.
• 1998-2004, Congo, famine, and disease killed about 3.8 million people due to war.

Conclusion

In conclusion, famine has been a persistent issue throughout human history and continues to affect millions of people worldwide. Factors contributing to famine include climate uncertainty, poverty, lack of agricultural development, and political instability. Addressing these issues will require a global effort, focusing on agricultural development, alternate economic opportunities, effective relief operations, and social development. International cooperation and the involvement of organizations like Red Cross, UNICEF, World Bank, and NGOs are crucial in eradicating famine and ensuring that all individuals have access to adequate food and nutrition.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Famine: Causes, Effects & Remedies

What are the main factors contributing to famine in various regions across the world?

Some main factors contributing to famine include climate uncertainty, dependence on primary activities, poverty, natural disasters, low income and inadequate economic transformation, social factors, political and strategic factors, and ineffective public distribution systems.

How does tribal culture in Africa play a role in the issues faced by the continent in relation to famine?

Tribal culture in Africa can make it difficult for governments to provide services and support due to the nomadic lifestyle of many tribes. Additionally, tribal groups may not recognize international borders, leading to conflicts and rivalries between neighboring countries, and can contribute to food distribution issues by looting and hoarding government-provided food.

What are some of the most devastating famines recorded in India?

Some of the most devastating famines recorded in India include the Bengal Famine of 1943, the Chalisa Famine of 1783, the Great Bengal Famine of 1770, the Skull Famine of 1791, the Orissa Famine of 1866, the Deccan Famine of 1630, the Deccan Famine of 1873, and the Agra Famine of 1837.

What are some potential remedies for addressing the famine problem globally?

Potential remedies include global efforts to improve agricultural development, creating alternative economies, providing relief operations, rationalizing international trade of food, improving public distribution systems, international cooperation for forecasting natural hazards and controlling drought, technical assistance from developed countries, population control measures, social development, and the active participation of international organizations and NGOs in famine eradication.

How does famine impact society and human life overall?

Famine can lead to the creation of an undernourished, epidemic, and disease-prone society, with increased mortality rates, stillbirths, underweight and undernourished newborns, and genetic degradation. It can also result in social and administrative mismanagement, as well as political, social, and community tensions and conflicts.