Supplementary Readings - 4 | Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Science Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Stone for Walls

• Stone is a great material for farm building walls where it's available.
• Builders familiar with stone can use it effectively.

Concrete Blocks

• Concrete blocks come in various types like solid, hollow, vibrated, or cellular.
• They can be used for load-bearing walls with thermal insulation similar to brickwork.
• Cellular blocks offer better insulation and can be used in cavity walls.

Roof Construction

• Open roofs are important for good air and light in animal buildings.
• Steel or wood trusses with felt and slates or tiles are excellent for animal habitats.
• Corrugated iron roofing is cost-effective but may make the building cold in winter and hot in summer.

Asbestos Cement Roof

• Asbestos cement roofing is non-corrosive, light, and insulating.
• It requires minimal attention and comes in corrugated sheets or flat 'slates'.

Asbestos Protected Metal

• This roofing is a combination of corrugated iron and asbestos fabric.
• It lasts long and has low maintenance costs.

Considerations for Roofing Material

• Sheeting needs truss and purlin support, while tiles and slates need a heavier structure.
• Livestock and dairy buildings may require internal lining with certain roofing materials.

Cost and Comfort

• Corrugated iron roofing is cost-effective but may affect the building's temperature.
• Asbestos cement roofing is a good balance of durability, insulation, and low maintenance.

Farm Building Tips

• Use stone for walls if available.
• Consider concrete blocks for insulation.
• Opt for trusses that allow good air and light.
• Choose roofing materials based on cost, climate, and maintenance needs.

Ideal Floor Characteristics

A good floor for animal spaces needs to be:

• Nonporous
• Easy to clean and quick-drying
• Non-slippery
• Durable and long-lasting
• Comfortable for the animals

Consideration of Expense

• Since animals are usually kept for profit, the cost of the floor is a factor to consider.
• Floors that don't absorb water and dry quickly tend to last longer.

Moisture Absorption Concerns

• Animals tend to urinate and defecate where they stand, so the floor material should not absorb moisture.
• Moisture-absorbing floors can lead to constant dampness, coldness, and unhealthy air in the building.

Health Risks of Dampness

• Damp floors and walls are major causes of illness and weakness in animals.
• They can contribute to the spread of diseases and reduce the overall health of the animals.

Slippery Floor Hazards

• Slippery floors can cause accidents, especially for horses and cattle.
• A smooth but impervious floor is harder and denser, but its smoothness can pose risks if not kept clean.

Surface Polishing and Cleanliness

• Level floors with smooth surfaces can become polished with animal movement.
• Regular cleaning is crucial to prevent surfaces from becoming too smooth and slippery.

Durability Importance

• Floors must be durable for economic and hygienic reasons.
• Poorly laid floors can wear unevenly, crack, and develop holes that collect water and dirt.

Preventing Dampness

• Ideally, the floor should be above the ground level to avoid dampness.
• If the floor must be below ground level, measures like a dry area or damp-proof course should be in place.

Drainage Challenges

• Low-level floors are harder to drain than raised ones.
• Proper drainage is essential to prevent issues associated with dampness.

Best Flooring Material

• Cement concrete is the top choice for animal house flooring.
• It's durable, less permeable, and cost-effective.
• Adding powdered carborundum makes the surface less slippery.

Foundation Preparation

• Clear the ground to the required depth.
• Level and compact the earth for a solid base.
• Lay a 6-inch layer of hardcore (broken stones or bricks) for insulation and a proper foundation.

Insulation Importance

• Proper insulation, like using hollow terra-cotta blocks, is crucial for animal habitation floors.
• It prevents sinking and cracking of the floor.

Concrete Composition

• The concrete floor is made of one part Portland cement, four parts gravel, broken stones or bricks, and two parts sand.
• This mixture ensures a sturdy and long-lasting floor.

Suitability for Different Animals

• Cement concrete is excellent for cowsheds and piggeries but might be too slippery for horses.
• However, it's proven effective for heavy draught horses in commercial stables.

Roughening Smooth Surfaces

• Smooth and slippery concrete floors can be roughened using commercial hydrochloric acid.
• This process, devised by Scriven and Kenney, is cost-effective and can be done by farm labor.

Safety Precautions

• Workers should use rubber boots and mackintoshes when handling acid.
• Adequate ventilation is crucial due to noxious acid fumes.

Alternative Flooring Material

• Ordinary building bricks, though used in some places, are not ideal for flooring.
• They are porous and wear unevenly, making them less suitable for animal housing.

Brick Flooring

• Regular bricks are cheaper than vitrified paving bricks and less slippery.
• When used, they should be set on their edges and placed in cement for stability.

Wood Flooring Issues

• Wood is unsuitable for animal house flooring.
• Even hard-wood blocks and creosoted railway sleepers absorb water, making them inappropriate.

Cork and Plich Composition Bricks

• Composition bricks made of cork and plich are suggested for cor stalls and piggery beds.
• These bricks provide a unique combination of warmth and resiliency.

Rubber Flooring Challenges

• Rubber has been used but has limitations.
• Rubber blocks and mats can become slippery when wet and are challenging to fix securely to cement floors.

Rubber Plastic Flooring

• Rubber plastic flooring is a promising option.
• It's warm, resilient, impermeable, and durable.
• Damaged areas can be cut out and replaced with new material.

Suitability of Rubber Flooring

• Rubber flooring is not suitable for heavy-duty use in horse stables.
• However, rubber plastic flooring is recommended for dairy cattle standings.

Causes of Dampness

• Dampness in walls and floors is often due to poor construction and neglected repairs.
• Leakages from roofs, walls, or absence of damp-resisting courses contribute to dampness.

Leaky Roof Impact

• A displaced or missing slate or tile on a roof allows rainwater to soak walls.
• Regular roof inspections and prompt repairs are essential to prevent moisture damage.

Preventing Dampness

• Damp-resisting courses can be nullified if the outer ground is piled against the wall.
• Regular examination of roofs and repairs is crucial to prevent and address leaks and dampness issues.

Damaged Gutters and Rain Pipes

• Problem: Broken or clogged gutters and rain pipes can harm your building's safety.
• Impact: Water runs down walls, leading to dampness in walls and floors.
• Solution: Regularly check for cracks in rain pipes, especially near the wall, and clear any blockages.

Absence of Damp Courses

• Issue: Lack of proper damp-proof course can lead to damp walls.
• Importance: Damp-proof courses should be above ground and below the floor in new buildings.
• Action: Level the wall, remove sharp objects, and use a suitable damp-proof course like bituminous sheeting.

Retaining Walls

• Challenge: Higher ground can cause dampness in the retaining wall.
• Solution: Create a trench, lay a drain, fill with dry stones, and cover with cement concrete.
• Extra Step: Apply cement plaster or asphalt on the outer surface for added protection.

Rain Damped Walls

• Issue: Walls facing the west wind become damp during rain.
• Prevention: Build hollow walls, use cement plaster with waterproofing, or attach tiles to creosoted wood battens.
• Construction: Hollow brick walls with proper ventilation between outer and inner walls.

Galvanized Iron Ties in Walls

• Use galvanized iron ties between walls and outer casing.
• Include at least two ties per yard of work, twisted in the middle to prevent moisture transfer.
• Carefully build ties during hollow wall construction to avoid mortar dropping onto them.

Benefits of Hollow Walls

• Hollow walls offer double advantages.
• They provide a reliable method to prevent rain penetration.
• Offer better heat insulation compared to the same thickness of solid brick walls.

Planning Cattle Housing

• Consider details like layout, construction, and equipment for cowhouses.
• Influences animal health, milk hygiene, working costs, and labor.
• Location should have easy access to roads, pastures, dairy, and food stores.
• Ensure a sufficient water supply for milk production.

Large Herds in Cowhouses

• Common practice to house the entire milking herd in one building.
• Drawback: Diseases may spread more easily, especially in poorly ventilated buildings.
• Suggested Solution: Split large herds into self-contained units with about 50 animals each.
• Segregation is important for general health and control of contagious diseases.

Health Considerations

• Provide separate isolation boxes for calving cows and sick animals.
• Prioritize herd health and milk cleanliness in cowhouse planning.
• Emphasize the need for scrupulous care by the staff, as building expenses alone can't guarantee these outcomes.

Planning and Construction of Cowhouses

• Key Considerations: Site suitability, sufficient cubic space, proper floor space proportion, efficient ventilation, lighting, and easy cleaning.
• Interior Layout: Choose between single or double rows for cow standings.
• Preference for Double-Range Cowhouses: Recommended for more than 16-20 cows, offering convenience, labor savings, and cost efficiency.
• Central Gangways: Essential for double-range cowhouses to facilitate easy cleaning and dung removal.
• Cows' Orientation: Cows should face outward with heads near fresh air inlets for optimal ventilation.
• Avoiding Respiratory Risks: Animals should not face each other to minimize the risk of respiratory infections and to facilitate effective ventilation.

Benefits of Double-Range Cowhouses

• Convenience: Easier supervision and milking.
• Labor Savings: Efficient dung removal using carts or mechanical means.
• Cost Efficiency: Maximizes floor space and reduces building costs.

Importance of Orientation

• Cows should face air inlets in walls for maximum fresh air intake.
• Ensures the health and well-being of the animals by optimizing ventilation.

Overall Objective

• Ensure a well-planned cowhouse layout to reduce labor, promote animal health, and enhance efficiency in cleaning and maintenance.

Internal Dimensions of Cowhouse

• Width:
  • Single-Range Layout: Minimum dimensions - Gangway 4', dung channel 3', standing 6', manger 32" to 36", optional feeding passage 3'. Total building width 16' (or 18').
  • Double-Range Layout: Similar to single-range but with a wider central gangway (5'). Total building width 27' (or 33').
• Tying Points and Manger Width:
  • For side ties with narrow mangers, keep the distance from the wall or feeding passage to the dung channel under 7 feet 6 inches.
  • If using wider mangers (up to 2 feet 6 inches), tie points should align with the front kerb of the manger.
  • Total building width is 14 feet 6 inches (or 17 feet 6 inches) for single range, 28 feet (or 32 feet) for double range.

Length

• Cowhouse length depends on the number of standings, allowing 3 feet 6 inches for an average cow or 3 feet 3 inches for smaller breeds.
• Allocate 6 feet 6 inches or 7 feet for each double stall, and 4 feet for a single stall to accommodate cleaning and milking operations.

Height

• Inside wall height should not exceed 8 feet to avoid ventilation issues and down drafts.
• Height to ridge should be 15 feet or 16 feet for optimal cowhouse design.

Key Highlights

• Consider width, tying points, and manger width based on cowhouse layout (single or double range).
• Tailor length to accommodate the number of standings and allow space for cleaning and milking.
• Maintain a suitable height to ensure proper ventilation and avoid down drafts in the cowhouse.

Walls

• Internal cowhouse walls should have a smooth, hard finish with cement rendering, glazed tiles, or bricks.
• Maintain a height of at least 4 feet 6 inches for tiles or bricks, with the area above smoothly rendered to prevent dirt accumulation.
• Fill corners and angles with a cement filler for a complete finish.

Doors

• For a single-range cowhouse, the doorway should be 7 ft. high and a clear 4 ft. wide.
• Use a divided door with the lower part being 4 ft. high, hinged to open outwards.
• Ensure doors lie flat against the external wall when fully open to avoid hindering the passage of animals.
• In a double-range cowhouse, the doorway should be a clear 8 to 9 ft. wide.
• Options include double-hung or sliding doors, with sliding doors placed inside for weather protection.

Ventilation, Lighting, and Feeding Passages

• Refer to the 'Air, Ventilation, and Lighting' section for details on cowhouse ventilation and lighting.
• Consideration for feeding passages: Some debate exists on having a feeding passage in front of cows or having them stand close to the facing wall.
• A feeding passage is useful for yoked or similar ties, making feeding easier.
• The passage's width need not exceed 3 ft., and it should connect directly to the food-mixing room.
• Caution against wider passages being used for unintended purposes, like storing hay or as a pen for calves, which is not ideal.

Feeding Passages

• Advantages: Feeding passages allow better observation and individual attention to cows at all times.
• Consideration: Houses without feeding passages are narrower, cost less to build, and can be easily repurposed if needed.

Regional Considerations

• Note that in some parts of the U.K., particularly in Scotland, there's a preference against feeding passages.
• The reasoning behind this preference is not entirely clear, and experienced dairy farmers differ in their opinions.

Standings

• Importance of Limiting Area: The area where a cow stands and lies should be limited in length to prevent faeces and urine from soiling the floor.
• Clean Milk Production: Properly proportioned standings help avoid the cow lying on excreta, contributing to cleaner milk.
• Restriction Consideration: While limiting space may restrict backward movement, it is essential for maintaining cleanliness.
• Proper Proportions: Well-designed standings allow most excreta to fall into the dung channel behind the cows.
• Challenges of Improper Construction: If standings are not constructed well, with cows frequently soiling their udders with manure, the effort required to keep them clean becomes challenging and often unsatisfactory.

Stalls Length

• Short Stalls Issues: If stalls are too short, cows may stand with hind feet in the dung channel, causing harm to hoofs and discomfort.
• Ideal Length: The length of the standing should allow cows to stand naturally with hind legs just at the border of the rear channel.
• Tailored Length: The length varies based on cow size, ranging from 4 feet 9 inches to 5 feet 3 inches.

Feeding Passage Consideration

• If a feeding passage is present, measurements can be made from the manger.
• Length Adjustment: Varying the length can accommodate cows of different sizes by constructing back steps not parallel to the manger front.

Double Stalls

• Common Practice: Cows are typically kept in pairs in double stalls for labor efficiency and cost reduction.
• Width Consideration: Proper width prevents cows from fouling the standing or injuring each other.
• Suitable Width: For double stalls, width may range from 6 feet 6 inches for small animals to 7 feet 6 inches for larger ones.

Flooring of the Standing

• Material Choice: Use impervious, easily cleanable, non-slippery material for standing flooring.
• Ideal Surface: A uniform fall of 1 to 1.5 inches from manger to dung channel is important.
• Cement Concrete Option: Although it tends to be cold, cement concrete is cost-effective, durable, and suitable if properly finished and roughened for good foothold.
• Improved Warmth: Adding loosely packed hardcore or hollow building bricks underneath the concrete helps keep the floor warmer and drier.

Gangways and Milking Passages

• Importance of Wide Passage: A wide passage behind cows is beneficial for safety and comfort.
• Turning Comfort: Cows can turn safely, reducing the risk of slipping and falling.
• Visibility: A wider passage ensures better lighting, illuminating udders and hindquarters for efficient milking.
• Splash Prevention: A wider passage minimizes the risk of dung and urine splashing into milk pails during milking.
• Staff Efficiency: A narrow passage may lead to cramped spaces and hinder efficient work by the staff.

Milking Passage Dimensions

• Single-Range Cowhouse: Milking passage should be at least 4 feet wide with a 1-inch fall towards the dung channel.
• Double-Range Building: Central passage should be slightly cambered and no less than 8 feet wide.
• Surface Material: Flooring should be of cement concrete with a rough, non-slip surface.
• Important Detail: Fill the angle where the back wall joins the floor with a cement fillet and round out the corners for cleanliness.

Interior Drainage

• Significance: Interior drainage is crucial for cow cleanliness and overall hygiene.
• Open Channel: The drain or dung channel should be an open channel behind the standings, running the length of the building.
• Disposal: It should discharge into an open gully trap outside the building, connected to a suitable drain or disposal area.
• Environmental Consideration: Placement should avoid ditches, streams, or water sources to maintain herd health and water quality for the cowshed and dairy.

Dung Channel

• Adequate Width: The dung channel should be wide enough to hold dung and bedding without becoming overloaded.
• Recommended Dimensions: Typically, 3 feet wide with a 1-inch cross-fall away from the standing and a 1/2-inch fall per cow length.
• Uniform Depth: Maintain a uniform depth throughout the channel's length for effective drainage.
• Surface Finish: A smooth finish on the concrete surface for the first 4 inches from the edge can aid liquid drainage.
• Cross Channels Caution: Avoid cross channels unless the dung channel exceeds about 70 feet; if needed, make them about 12 inches wide with gratings.

Mangers

• Material and Design: Mangers should be made of hard, impervious, alkali-resistant materials designed for easy cleaning.
• Unsuitability of Timber: Timber is not suitable for mangers due to cleaning challenges.
• Common Types:
  (i) Individual Glazed Stoneware Mangers
  (ii) Continuous Concrete Mangers with High Backs
• Individual Mangers:
  • Dimensions: Not more than 2 feet 6 inches long, 18 inches wide, and 8 inches deep.
  • Set in concrete with a raised benching at the back and sides.
  • Backed by a dwarf concrete wall if there is a feeding passage to prevent food spillage.
  • Horizontal rails above the dwarf wall to prevent cows from moving forward.
  • Objection: Difficult to clean effectively due to design and construction challenges, especially with messy foods like wet brewers' grains.

Cleaning Challenges

• Individual mangers quickly become dirty, especially with sloppy fermentable foods.
• Cleaning is laborious and challenging, leading to less effective cleaning practices.
• Frequent and thorough cleaning is necessary but often not achieved with individual mangers.