Supplementary Readings - 5 | Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Science Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Continuous Mangers

• Materials: Continuous mangers are made of concrete or stoneware, often with concrete or metal divisions for each cow or pair.
• Lining Options: Glazedware manger linings are preferred over concrete finishes for durability and smoother surfaces.
• Securing Cows: For central ties, manger width is 3 feet; for alle ties, it varies between 1 foot 6 inches and 2 feet 6 inches.
• Back Height: Back height is 2 feet 6 inches above the feeding passage for ease of filling food.
• Front Kerb Height: Front kerb height should not exceed 6 inches to avoid difficulties for cows in lying down and rising.
• Lowest Point: The lowest point in the manger should be 1 to 2 inches above the standing level, ensuring easy access to food.
• Sloped Design: The back of the manger near the feeding passage may slope slightly outward, providing toe-space for filling.
• Divisions: Fixed concrete or movable metal divisions are essential to allocate food rations and allow easy cleaning by flushing with water.
• Infections Concern: There's debate about infection spread; however, the close housing system itself poses challenges for disease control.
• Hay Racks: Hay racks are unnecessary and should be removed in dairy cowhouses.

Stall Divisions

• Purpose: Stall partitions restrict sideward cow movement and prevent them from lying across stalls.
• Types: Stalls can be single or double, with the double type being recommended.
• Length: Stall divisions should not exceed 3 feet from the tying point to effectively manage cow movement and behavior.

Stall Divisions in Dairy Cowhouses

• Types:
  • Solid divisions: Made of reinforced cement concrete, either built in situ or precast, with a smooth, hard surface. They should be around 2 inches thick, 4 feet high at the head, sloping to 3 feet 6 inches at the rear.
  • Tubular metal divisions: Usually galvanized iron, suitable for use with central ties, promoting better air circulation and easier cleaning.
• Securing Cows: Cows are typically tied with chains or ropes around the neck, attached to a ring with vertical play on a rod bolted to the solid stall division. Tubular metal divisions allow central tying, restraining movement more effectively.

Tying Methods

• Solid Partitions: Side ties using chains or ropes tied around the neck, attached to a ring for limited movement.
• Tubular Metal Divisions: Central tying using a double chain, all-metal yoke, or Dutch chain tie, providing more restraint than side tying.
• Quick Release: All tying methods should have a quick-release mechanism for safety and convenience.

Food and Manure Carriers

• Use of Carriers: Large cowhouses benefit from carriers for soiled litter, dung, and food, either running on tracks or overhead rails.
• Simplifies Tasks: Carriers efficiently transport waste to the dung pit and food to the preparation house, saving labor.
• Convenience: The food preparation house should be attached to or easily accessible from the cowhouse.

Water Supply to Cowhouses and Dairies

• Water Requirement: An average daily water requirement of approximately 30 gallons per cow for drinking, cooling, washing, and cleaning operations.
• Water Distribution: Water should be available in cowhouses, cooling rooms, and washing and sterilizing rooms. Hose-pipe connections in cowhouses and dairies aid in floor cleaning.
• Staff Facilities: Hand basins should be provided for the milking staff for personal washing purposes.

Watering Stock in Cowhouses

• Automatic Water Supply: Dairy cows should have constant access to water. Automatic water supply systems with drinking bowls are essential.
• Systems:
  • Pressure feed system for drinking bowls.
  • Gravity feed system with a non-return valve for bowls.
• Reusing Water: Water used for milk cooling can be reused for washing cows, cowhouses, and watering stock if there are limitations in the water supply.

Pressure-type Drinking Bowls

• Principle: Inlet pipe fitted with a spring valve operated by the animal's hinged lever, allowing water flow when the lever is pressed.
• Water Supply: Direct from the main if pressure is 15 to 20 lb. per square inch; otherwise, a service tank (15 feet above floor level) supplied from the main through a ball-cock tap is used.
• Bowl Shape: Elongated shape recommended to accommodate the cow's natural jaw movement during drinking.
• Lever Placement: Vertical hinged lever allows the cow to use her nose pad for water flow, ensuring continuous supply while maintaining freedom of jaw movement.

Gravity-type Drinking Bowls

• Control: Inflow regulated by a constant level water-cistern with a ball-cock control, supplying individual bowls through a common pipe.
• Cistern Connection: Connected to the main storage tank; emergency overflow pipe prevents water in bowls from overflowing into the manger.
• Common Feed Pipe Issue: Direct-fed bowls have challenges in keeping water clean due to food particles dropped by cows. Recent development includes a non-return valve to prevent contamination.
• Non-return Valve: Placed in each incoming pipe above the bowl's bottom, preventing backflow and ensuring water in the bowl is sealed off when filled.

Key Considerations

• Natural Jaw Movement: Bowl design should allow the cow's natural jaw movement during drinking.
• Water Contamination: Efforts to prevent contamination, including non-return valves and proper bowl design.
• Installation Requirements: Pressure-type may need pressure reduction if the main supply is high; gravity-type requires careful design to avoid common feed pipe issues.

Overall Benefits

• Constant Water Supply: Both systems provide a continuous water supply for dairy cows.
• Ease of Use: Designs consider the natural behaviors of cows during drinking.
• Hygiene: Measures implemented to maintain cleanliness and prevent water contamination.

Position of Drinking Bowls

• Considerations: Placement depends on stall division, tying method, and manger type.
• Solid Stall Divisions, Side Ties, and Narrow Mangers:
  • Separate bowls for each cow placed at the back of the manger or centrally between pairs in a double standing.
  • Central position is preferable to avoid impeding the cow's rising.
  • Bowl height: 2 to 2.5 feet above the standing floor.
• Yoke or Close Ties and Wide Continuous Manger:
  • Bowls at the front of the manger, fitted to tie standards on the standing side.
  • Top of the bowl about 2 feet above the manger front.
  • Separate bowls between two cows in the same stall are preferred for disease prevention.

Calving and Isolation Boxes

• Special Accommodation:
  • Loose-boxes for calving cows and isolation of cows with infectious diseases.
  • Calving in the milking cowshed is objectionable for clean milk production and disease prevention.
  • Loose-boxes should be away from the cowhouse, self-contained, with separate drainage connection, and easy to clean.
• Construction and Use:
  • Loose-boxes resemble those for horses and are constructed for easy cleaning and disinfection.
  • Isolation Loose-Box: Intended for isolating animals with infectious diseases, should be separate from the main cowshed.
  • Convenient Loose-Box: Positioned in or leading from the cowshed, used for temporarily housing animals with minor issues not affecting milk quality.

Key Considerations

• Disease Prevention: Separate bowls and proper isolation facilities crucial for preventing disease spread.
• Clean Milk Production: Avoiding calving in the milking cowshed contributes to clean milk production.
• Convenient Placement: Convenient loose-boxes near the cowshed for minor issues, maintaining milk quality.

Dairy Room Setup

• Determining Factors:
  • Size and construction based on milk quantity and storage duration.
  • Two separate rooms needed: one for milk processing and another for cleaning and sterilizing equipment.
• Milk Room Location:
  • Near but not directly connected to the cowshed.
  • Roofed approach for convenience and weather protection.
  • Manure pit placed far away for hygiene.
• Room Requirements:
  • Preferably north-facing for cooling.
  • Good ventilation and lighting.
  • Smooth, cleanable walls (polished cement, tiles, or enamelled bricks).
  • Impervious floor with proper drainage.
  • Fly-proofing with wire gauze on windows and ventilators.
  • Double-door system for insect control and ventilation in hot weather.
• Inside the Milk Room:
  • Contains cooler, clean churns, bottling machines, and separators.
  • Weighing and straining done in a separate milk receiving room.
  • Strainer and connecting pipe should be removable for cleaning and sterilization.
• Washing and Sterilizing Room:
  • Adjacent to the milk room.
  • Receives dirty churns, milking machine parts, bottles, etc.
  • Equipped with hot and cold water, steam, and cleaning appliances.
• Boiler House:
  • Separate house for the boiler when using solid fuel.
  • If using a gas or electric sterilizer, it can be placed in the washing and sterilizing room.

Key Considerations

• Hygiene Priority: Construction and setup designed for easy cleaning and hygiene.
• Workflow Efficiency: Separation of tasks to reduce traffic in and out of the milk room.
• Equipment Placement: Cooler and processing equipment in the milk room, washing and sterilizing in a dedicated area.

Bull Housing Guidelines

• Common Issues:
  • Bulls often housed in inadequate conditions.
  • Common problems include poor lighting, ventilation, limited exercise space, and isolation.
  • Keeping bulls in cowsheds is discouraged due to safety risks and negative health effects.
• Negative Effects of Poor Housing:
  • Standing on hard surfaces in cowsheds leads to hoof overgrowth and limb misalignment.
  • Continuous confinement can result in overfat and slow bulls, impacting breeding performance.
  • Lack of exercise may decrease sperm production, affecting fertility.

Key Considerations for Bull Housing

• Safety and Handling Ease:
  • Priority for safe and easy handling of bulls.
  • Avoidance of situations where controlling a potentially aggressive bull is difficult.
• Comfortable Shelter:
  • Provide a comfortable loose-box or shed for protection against weather conditions.
  • Shelter should offer relief from both harsh weather and direct sunlight on warm days.
• Exercise Provision:
  • Importance of allowing bulls space for regular exercise.
  • Continuous confinement negatively impacts health and reproductive efficiency.

Ideal Arrangement

If bulls were always easy to handle:

• Ideal setup would be a fenced paddock of 1-2 acres.
• Paddock equipped with a loose-box or open shed for shelter against weather and sunlight.

Overall Goal

• Ensure herd sires (bulls) maintain good health, vitality, and high reproductive efficiency.
• Proper attention to safety, shelter, and exercise contributes to the well-being of bulls.

Roofing Material Selection

• Criteria for Choice:
  • Cheapness
  • Durability
  • Low heat conduction
• Options:
  • Coconut, palmyra leaves, and bamboo thatches are cheap but unhygienic, prone to fire, and require constant maintenance.
  • Wood is a good insulator but expensive and a fire hazard.
  • Tiles and alabs are good insulators but expensive and require strong support.
  • Reinforced cement concrete is cool but very costly.
• Recommended Choices:
  • Aluminium, asbestos, cement sheets are cost-effective, durable, fire-resistant, and hygienic.
  • Aluminium sheets are ideal for tropical climates.
  • Galvanised iron sheets, painted white, can be an alternative for heat reflection.
• Flooring:
  • Cement concrete for easy cleaning, disinfection, and rat prevention.
  • Height of the floor should be nine inches above surroundings, increased in heavy rainfall areas.

Ventilation

• Importance:
  • Uninterrupted exchange of foul air for fresh air is crucial.
  • Ventilation helps in moisture removal.
• Winter Ventilation:
  • Controlled ventilation without temperature variations.
  • Warm houses for optimal production.
  • Provision for ammonia and gas removal.
• Summer Ventilation:
  • Cross ventilation ideal in 80-95°F temperature.
  • Side walls with wire mesh for air circulation.
  • Avoid hot outside air entry, no tall crops around houses.
  • Spider webs and plants can hinder fresh air flow and should be managed.

Sanitation Considerations

• Thatched roofs are unhygienic, attracting insects and vermin.
• Good sanitation involves regular cleaning, disinfection, and prevention of air pollution.
• Ventilation factors depend on temperature, humidity, and air movement rates.
• Control draught during winter and avoid pollution sources in summer.
• Surrounding crop selection affects air quality, especially avoiding tall, dense-growing crops.
• Attention to sanitation ensures a healthy poultry environment.

Temperature Management

• Desired Range:
  • Ideal poultry house temperature: 45°F to 75°F.
  • Optimal production achieved within this range.
  • Low temperature increases feed consumption, while protection from high temperature enhances production.
• Challenges at Extreme Temperatures:
  • Above 85°F leads to thin-shelled and small-sized eggs.
  • Humidity above 78% makes birds uncomfortable.
  • Birds reared on deep litters prefer humidity between 40% and 70% for normal feather growth.

Lighting

Proper Lighting Program:

• Use one ceiling light per 200 sq. ft. of floor space.
• For morning and evening lighting, employ 40 to 60 Watt incandescent bulbs or 15 Watt fluorescent lamps.
• Shallow dome reflectors ensure even light distribution.

Litter Management

• Importance:
  • Crucial for preventing poultry diseases as many are litter-borne.
  • Litter acts as a breeding ground for diseases like coccidiosis and internal parasites.
• Litter Materials:
  • Groundnut husk, ground corn cobs, sawdust, cottonseed hulls, peat moss, wood shavings, etc.
  • Dried under the sun, spread uniformly (15-22 cm thickness) for better decomposition and dryness.
  • Adjust thickness based on seasons to maintain optimum litter temperature.
• Maintenance Practices:
  • Stir litter twice a week to prevent caking and bury disease germs.
  • Add hydrated lime (5-7 kg per 100 sq. ft.) to prevent caking, reduce odour, and act as a calcium source.
  • Lime helps maintain dryness and controls infective agents.
  • Ensure litter materials are free from high tannin levels or harmful treatments.
• Ideal Conditions:
  • Poultry house should be odour-free.
  • Litter should crumble easily without forming cakes or small lumps.

Key Takeaways

• Temperature control between 45°F to 75°F is crucial for optimal poultry production.
• Proper lighting and litter management are essential for bird comfort, health, and disease prevention.
• Regular attention to litter drying, stirring, and composition ensures a hygienic and conducive environment for poultry.

Observing Birds

• Regularly check birds day and night to ensure their comfort.
• Pay attention to areas not occupied by birds, especially during the night.
• Cold areas may be a concern; seal gaps, holes, and cracks in doors and windows.

Advantages of Deep Litter System

• Safe Housing: Provides a secure home for birds.
• Source of Food Supply: Built-up deep litter supplies essential "Animal Protein Factor" for egg hatchability and early chicken growth.
• Disease Control: Reduces the incidence of diseases like coccidiosis and worm infections.
• Labor Saving: Requires less effort in maintenance.
• Fertilizer: Acts as a valuable fertilizer.
• Insulation: Serves as a valuable insulating agent in bad weather.

Pig Housing

• Good housing is crucial for quick and efficient pig growth.
• Consider durability, utility, and cost when planning a pig house.
• Provide fresh air, exercise, sunlight, and protection from harsh weather conditions.
• Pigs are sensitive to temperature extremes; maintaining a suitable temperature is essential.

Systems of Pig Housing

• Open Air System: Incorporates outdoor elements.
• Indoor System: Pigs housed indoors.
• Combination: Commonly used in many places.

Farm Location

• Ideally near a city with high pork demand.
• Pig houses located on suitable grazing land if pigs are raised on pasture.

Construction

• Use wood and light roofing material for simplicity.
• Ensure proper drainage and access to good water.
• Install feeders and waterers within the house.

Portable Houses for Pigs on Pasture

• Dimensions: 8 feet x 7 feet.
• Adequate floor space for different pig age groups:
  • Growing Pigs (15-35 kg): 4 sq. feet.
  • Growing Pigs (35-55 kg): 5 sq. feet.
  • Pigs to Market Weight (55 kg and above): 8 sq. feet.
  • Brood Sows and Boars: 15 sq. feet.

Pig Grazing on Pasture

• 50 to 80 pigs can graze on a hectare of land, depending on their age.
• A hectare can sustain 25 to 30 sows with litters.
• Strong and closely knitted barbed wire fencing is crucial to confine pigs.

Permanent Central Hog House

• Intensively reared pigs have a central house with or without attached paddocks.
• All husbandry activities occur within the house, except during grazing.
• Pigs are kept on a dry lot; cut grass or dried crops can be hand-fed when grazing is limited.

Construction of Pig House

• Ideal site is elevated, well-drained, and with a low water table.
• Away from dwellings and dairy farms to avoid odors.
• Building has brick and mortar walls, a concrete floor sloping for easy cleaning.
• Two rows of pens with a central path for efficient management.
• Pens include separate ones for breeding, farrowing, nursing, weaned piglets, growing pigs, and a feed store.
• Utilizing room for equipment and other operations.
• Slaughter room with a raised concrete slab and a cement tub outside.

Specific Pen Requirements

• Breeding Stock: Kept separately in groups.
• Farrowing Quarters: For confinement during sow farrowing.
• Nursing Pens: Special pens for nursing sows and piglets.
• Pens for Weaned Piglets: Areas for piglets after weaning.
• Pens for Growing Pigs: Spaces for pigs raised for market.
• Feed Store: Storage for pig feed.
• Utilizing Room: For equipment and minor operations.
• Slaughter Room: Includes a raised concrete slab and an external cement tub.

Constructional Details

• Floor: Concrete with a rough surface.
• Roof: Reinforced concrete (R.C.) or tiles are excellent options.
• Walls: Constructed with brick and concrete.
• Windows: Double-glazed windows to reduce heat escape.

Troughs

Provide trough space of about 12 inches.

Water Supply

Ensure fresh water availability throughout the year.

Drainage Facilities

• Efficiently remove waste and urine.
• Floors should slope towards the drain for liquid removal.

Housing of Sheep

• Similar building requirements for sheep and goats.
• Shelter should be dry, clean, and protect from extreme weather.
• Loose housing system is common.
• Half-walled sheds without open paddocks are used.
• Sheep are kept in sheds at night and graze during the day.

Sheep Shed Design

• Rough sketch provided (see Figure 9).
• Floor space requirement per covered area:
  • Adult ewe: 1m²
  • Lamb: 0.4m²
  • Total: 2m²
• Maximum number of animals per pen: 60 ewes, 60 lambs.
• Shed height at eaves: 300cm in dry areas, 220cm in heavy rainfall areas.

Housing of Goats

• Goat house design balances comfort for goats and convenience for human management.
• Not necessarily expensive.
• Basic needs include shelter, fresh air, and protection from rain, humidity, and predators.
• Accommodation for controlled feeding provided.

Systems of Goat Housing

• Stall System
• Loose Housing System
• Box System

Types of Goat Houses

• Ground Level Construction
• Slatted Housing (Elevated Floor)

Floor Area

• Varies with goat size, climate, and herd size.
• More space recommended for herds smaller than 10 goats.

Goat Housing

• Stall System:
  • Goats housed in stalls or loose boxes.
  • Wooden partitions similar to stable setups.
  • Concrete floor raised 3 inches above ground with a slope towards an open drain.
  • Removable slatted floor 4 inches above concrete for cleanliness.
  • Loose boxes equipped with litter or a raised platform for goats to lie on.
• Lean-To Type Building:
  • In rural goat rearing, elaborate barns are not necessary.
  • Lean-to type against an existing building, 5 feet wide and 7 feet long.
  • Stall partition height: 4 feet 6 inches in front, 3 feet 6 inches at the back.
  • Wooden shelf for food and water, sloping hay rack, and a 2.5 feet wide door.
• Loose-Box for Single Goat:
  • Dimensions about 5x5 feet with 5 feet high walls.
  • Raised sleeping benches 2 feet 6 inches wide for several kids if needed.
• Winter Housing:
  • Goats kept in stalls or loose boxes during winter.
  • Allowed outside as long as possible when not raining.
  • Pedigreed and high-producing goats housed under cover every night.
• Stall System Requirements:
  • Requires 10 to 15 square feet of floor area per goat.
  • Partitioned feeding trough, water trough, and wire mesh platform for roughages.
  • Simple benches made of wooden planks for healthy and comfortable sleeping.
• Slatted Housing:
  • Common in humid areas with heavy rainfall.
  • Elevated floor (3 to 3.5 feet) for cleaning.
  • Space of 2.5 feet by 4.5 feet required for each goat.
  • Underneath slatted floor, a space provided for dung and urine collection.
• General Flock Shed:
  • Adult breeding does housed here, accommodating 50 to 60 does.
  • Height: 3 meters, brick on-edge floor.
  • In low areas, consider elevating the floor; in hilly regions, strong wood may be used.
• Shed for Bucks:
  • Bucks housed individually or partitions raised in a larger shed.
  • Recommended stall dimensions: 7' 6" x 5' (2.25 x 1.8 m).
• Kidding Shed:
  • Pregnant does housed individually, draught-free.
  • Cold regions may require warming devices.
  • Protection from birds like crows is essential.
• Kid Shed:
  • Houses kids from weaning to maturity.
  • About 25 to 30 kids per shed.
  • Larger sheds can be partitioned for separate housing of unweaned, weaned, growing, and mature kids.
  • For 10 kids, 5' 6" x 8' (1.6 x 2.4 m) loose stalls with 3' 4" (0.98 m) height are sufficient.
• Sick Animal Shed:
  • Away from other sheds, one or more sheds depending on flock size.
  • Size: 10' x 5' (3 x 1.5 m) with facilities for light and water.
• Additional Sheds and Facilities:
  • Weighing yards, stores for concentrate mixture, medicines, farm equipment.
  • Sheds for hay, straw, and greens.
  • Dipping tank, especially on larger farms.
• Buildings for Milch Goat Farms:
  • Simple shelter with water trough and feed manger for few goats.
  • For a larger number of goats, separate sheds for milch goats, bucks, kids, etc.
  • Milch goats housed individually in stalls, dimensions: 3' 6" x 3' 6" (0.75 x 1.05 m).
  • Partitions between stalls made of brick or iron.
  • Small milk room may be added, especially in breeding farms.
• Note:
  • Large milch goat farms are rare in the country; mostly found in agricultural university farms.
  • People commonly keep one or two milch goats for domestic milk supply.