UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2024: Animal Husbandry Paper 2 (Section- A) | Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Science Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Section A

Q1: Discuss the following in about 150 words each: (10 × 5 = 50 Marks)

a) Twinning during embryonic development in animals (10 Marks)
Ans: Twinning refers to the formation of two offspring from a single pregnancy, occurring when a single fertilized egg divides into two embryos (monozygotic twins) or when two separate eggs are fertilized (dizygotic twins). Twinning during embryonic development plays a significant role in various animal species, including humans, cows, and sheep.
Key Points:

1. Monozygotic Twins (Identical):

   • These twins arise when a single fertilized egg divides into two embryos.

   • They share the same genetic material and are genetically identical.

   • Monozygotic twinning can occur at different stages, leading to variations in the degree of similarity.

     • Early division leads to separate placentas and amniotic sacs.

     • Late division results in shared placentas or amniotic sacs, possibly leading to conjoined twins.

2. Dizygotic Twins (Fraternal):

   • These twins result from the fertilization of two separate eggs by two sperm cells.

   • They are genetically distinct and may or may not resemble each other.

   • Common in species like cattle, pigs, and humans, often influenced by environmental or genetic factors.

3. Factors Influencing Twinning:

   • Genetics: Certain breeds, such as sheep and goats, have a higher propensity for twinning.

   • Environmental Factors: Nutrition, climate, and breeding practices can impact the likelihood of twinning. For example, good nutritional practices in dairy cows often lead to a higher rate of twinning.

   • Hormonal Influence: The release of gonadotropins during ovulation can lead to the formation of multiple follicles, increasing the chances of twinning.

4. Significance of Twinning:

   • In livestock, twinning can increase reproductive efficiency, providing farmers with more offspring.

   • However, it may lead to complications like reduced birth weight or premature birth.

Twinning is a fascinating aspect of embryonic development that enhances reproductive success in many animal species. Understanding its mechanisms, influencing factors, and implications can help improve breeding practices, especially in livestock production.

(b) Classification of antimicrobial agents based on the mechanism of action with examples (10 Marks)
Ans: Antimicrobial agents are substances used to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and viruses. These agents are classified based on their mechanism of action, which refers to how they affect the biological processes of microorganisms.
Key Points:

1. Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibitors:

   • These agents prevent the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, weakening the structure and causing cell lysis.

   • Example: Penicillin and Cephalosporins. Penicillin inhibits the enzyme responsible for cross-linking the peptidoglycan layer of the bacterial cell wall, leading to cell rupture.

2. Protein Synthesis Inhibitors:

   • These agents interfere with bacterial protein synthesis by targeting ribosomal subunits, thereby preventing protein production.

   • Example: Tetracyclines (bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit) and Erythromycin (bind to the 50S ribosomal subunit).

3. Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibitors:

   • These agents inhibit the synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA), disrupting cell division and replication.

   • Example: Rifampicin (inhibits bacterial RNA polymerase) and Ciprofloxacin (inhibits DNA gyrase).

4. Cell Membrane Disruptors:

   • These agents disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane, leading to leakage of essential cellular components and cell death.

   • Example: Polymyxin B (used for Gram-negative bacteria).

5. Folate Synthesis Inhibitors:

   • These inhibit the production of folic acid, which is essential for DNA synthesis and cell division in microorganisms.

   • Example: Sulfonamides (inhibit dihydropteroate synthase) and Trimethoprim (inhibits dihydrofolate reductase).

Antimicrobial agents work through various mechanisms to combat infections. Understanding their classification based on the mode of action is essential for selecting the appropriate drug and minimizing resistance development.

(c) Specific requirements for brooder house of chicken (10 Marks)
Ans: A brooder house is a specially designed facility for rearing young chicks, providing them with the necessary environment for growth and development. A well-maintained brooder house ensures that chicks are kept warm, safe, and healthy during their early stages of life.
Key Points:

1. Temperature Control: Chicks require a warm environment to maintain their body temperature. The brooder house should be equipped with heating systems like infrared lamps or brooders to maintain a temperature of 32-35°C during the first week, gradually decreasing to 21°C as the chicks mature.

2. Ventilation: Proper ventilation is necessary to ensure a constant supply of fresh air and to prevent the accumulation of harmful gases such as ammonia. The ventilation system should allow for controlled air circulation without creating drafts.

3. Lighting: Chicks need sufficient light to stimulate feeding and activity. The lighting should be provided for at least 16-18 hours daily, with soft lighting during the night to ensure proper growth and prevent stress.

4. Space and Density: The brooder house should provide ample space for chicks to move around. Overcrowding can lead to stress, diseases, and mortality. The recommended space is 0.1-0.2 m² per chick in the first few weeks.

5. Cleanliness and Hygiene: The house should be kept clean to prevent disease. Regular cleaning of the bedding material and equipment should be done to minimize the risk of infections. Sanitation practices like disinfecting the house before and after use are essential.

6. Feeding and Watering: Adequate access to clean water and nutritious food is crucial for healthy chick development. Feeders and drinkers should be designed to minimize wastage and ensure all chicks have access to food and water.

A well-equipped brooder house is essential for the proper growth and health of young chicks. Ensuring the right temperature, ventilation, space, and hygiene in the brooder house will lead to healthier, more productive poultry.

(d) Important clinical signs exhibited by poultry due to deficiency of vitamin E (10 Marks)
Ans: Vitamin E, a fat-soluble vitamin, is essential for maintaining cellular integrity and promoting immune function in animals, including poultry. Its deficiency can lead to various clinical signs, often associated with poor health and reduced productivity. Vitamin E acts as a powerful antioxidant, protecting cells from oxidative damage.
Key Points:

1. Muscular Degeneration (Encephalomalacia):

   • One of the first noticeable signs of Vitamin E deficiency in poultry is muscular degeneration, especially in the leg muscles. This is due to the oxidative damage to muscle fibers, leading to weakness and inability to stand or walk.

   • Example: In severe cases, poultry may develop "crazy chick disease," where birds exhibit incoordination and paralysis of the legs.

2. Nutritional Myopathy (White Muscle Disease):

   • This condition involves degeneration of the muscle tissues, particularly around the heart and skeletal muscles. Affected poultry may show signs of stiffness and difficulty in movement, and in some cases, they may die due to cardiac muscle failure.

3. Reproductive Disorders:

   • Vitamin E deficiency is linked to poor reproductive performance in poultry, including reduced egg production, poor hatchability, and weak embryos. In hens, it may cause degeneration of ovarian follicles and impaired egg shell formation.

   • Example: Reduced fertility and hatchability are common in layers and breeder flocks suffering from this deficiency.

4. Immunosuppression:

   • Vitamin E plays a crucial role in maintaining a healthy immune system. Its deficiency can lead to a reduced ability to fight off infections, leaving poultry more susceptible to diseases.

   • Example: Increased incidence of respiratory and gastrointestinal infections can be observed in flocks with Vitamin E deficiency.

5. Oxidative Damage to Organs: Lack of Vitamin E causes increased oxidative stress, leading to damage in various organs, especially the liver. This may result in lethargy, loss of appetite, and poor growth.

Vitamin E deficiency in poultry significantly impacts their health, causing symptoms ranging from muscular degeneration to reproductive issues. Adequate supplementation of Vitamin E in the poultry diet is crucial to ensure optimal growth, productivity, and immunity, preventing these clinical signs.

(e) Clinical symptoms and treatment of impaction in bovines (10 Marks)
Ans: Impaction in bovines is a condition where the rumen becomes overloaded or blocked with food material, preventing proper digestion and leading to severe discomfort or even death if untreated. This condition is often caused by poor feeding practices, sudden changes in diet, or ingestion of indigestible materials.
Key Points:

1. Clinical Symptoms of Impaction:

   • Reduced or Absent Rumen Movements: One of the first signs of ruminal impaction is a decrease in the normal rumen contractions, which may become slow or absent. This leads to a decrease in the cow's overall digestion and appetite.

   • Abdominal Distension: The abdomen may appear swollen or bloated due to the buildup of undigested food material in the rumen.

   • Loss of Appetite: Affected animals show reduced interest in eating and may also display signs of dehydration.

   • Depression and Lethargy: Cows with impaction often appear lethargic, weak, and reluctant to move.

   • Colic: The animal may show signs of abdominal pain, such as kicking at the belly or rolling, which indicates discomfort due to the impaction.

   • Dehydration: The body may become dehydrated as the rumen is unable to properly process and absorb water from the food material.

2. Causes of Impaction:

   • Dietary Factors: Feeding animals large amounts of poor-quality roughage or dry feed without sufficient water can cause the rumen to become impacted.

   • Ingestion of Non-digestible Materials: Ingestion of foreign objects or dense, fibrous feed can cause blockages.

   • Sudden Changes in Diet: Transitioning cows from a high-fiber to a high-grain diet without a gradual adaptation period can lead to impaction.

3. Treatment of Impaction:

   • Oral Administration of Laxatives and Oils: Mild cases of impaction can be treated by administering vegetable oils or mineral oils to lubricate the rumen and help break down the impacted material.

   • Rumen Massage: Gently massaging the rumen area can help stimulate movement and alleviate some of the blockages.

   • Intravenous Fluids: Dehydrated cows may require intravenous fluids to restore hydration and assist in digestion.

   • Surgical Intervention: In severe cases, where there is a mechanical obstruction, surgical intervention may be required to remove the blockage or provide drainage.

   • Antibiotics and Probiotics: If infection or secondary complications occur, antibiotics and probiotics may be administered to restore rumen health and microbial balance.

4. Preventive Measures:

   • Gradually transition animals to new diets to avoid sudden changes.

   • Ensure adequate access to clean water and high-quality forage.

   • Regular monitoring of cows, especially during diet changes, can prevent early signs of impaction.

Impaction in bovines is a serious condition that can lead to significant health issues if not treated promptly. Early detection and proper treatment, including the administration of laxatives, rumen massage, and hydration, are crucial for recovery. Preventive measures, including careful diet management and access to clean water, are essential to avoid this condition.

Q2: 
 (a) Describe the etiology, clinical signs, postmortem lesions and control of hemorrhagic septicemia in buffaloes. (20 Marks)
Ans: Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS) is a highly fatal disease in buffaloes, caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida (serotypes B and E). It is characterized by sudden onset, high mortality, and systemic infection. The disease primarily affects buffaloes but can also impact cattle, goats, and other livestock species.
Etiology:

1. Causative Agent: Hemorrhagic septicemia is caused by Pasteurella multocida—a gram-negative, facultative anaerobic bacterium.

   • The bacterium produces endotoxins that cause systemic inflammation, affecting various organs.

   • Transmission occurs through direct contact, contaminated feed, water, and insect vectors.

2. Predisposing Factors:

   • Stress due to transport, sudden environmental changes, or overcrowding.

   • Poor nutrition and reduced immunity.

   • Seasonal changes, particularly during the rainy season when humidity levels are high.

Clinical Signs:

1. Acute Onset:

   • Sudden death within 12–48 hours of infection.

   • High fever (104-107°F).

   • Severe respiratory distress with open-mouth breathing, nasal discharge (serous to purulent), and coughing.

2. Edema and Swelling:

   • Swelling in the throat, neck, and jaw area (often referred to as "bull neck").

   • Subcutaneous hemorrhages, particularly in the chest, abdomen, and legs.

3. General Symptoms:

   • Weakness, lethargy, and loss of appetite.

   • Rapid pulse and shallow breathing.

   • Occasionally, diarrhea and bloating may also occur.

Postmortem Lesions:

1. Edematous and Hemorrhagic Lesions:

   • Congestion and hemorrhages in the lungs, pleura, and pericardium.

   • Enlarged, congested liver and spleen with hemorrhagic foci.

2. Pleural Effusion:

   • Fluid accumulation in the thoracic cavity with a reddish or brownish color.

   • Intestinal hemorrhages and bloody fluid in the abdomen.

3. Necrotic Lesions: Necrosis in various organs such as the lungs and liver due to the endotoxins produced by the bacteria.

Control:

1. Vaccination:

   • The use of live or inactivated vaccines can protect buffaloes from Pasteurella multocida infection.

   • Vaccination is especially important during high-risk seasons, such as before the rainy season.

2. Antibiotics and Supportive Therapy:

   • Early administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics like tetracycline, penicillin, or sulfonamides is effective in treating the disease.

   • Supportive treatment includes anti-inflammatory drugs, fluids, and electrolytes.

3. Biosecurity Measures:

   • Quarantine new animals before introduction into the herd.

   • Maintain clean and dry environments with good ventilation.

   • Regular deworming and control of vectors like flies can prevent spread.

Hemorrhagic septicemia is a severe bacterial infection in buffaloes that can lead to sudden death if not managed promptly. Early detection, vaccination, and proper management practices are essential for controlling the disease and minimizing its impact on livestock productivity.

(b) Describe various methods and procedures for in vitro staining with reference to histological examination. (15 Marks)
Ans: In vitro staining is an essential technique in histological examination, used to highlight specific cellular structures and tissues for microscopic analysis. Staining helps in differentiating tissues based on their chemical composition and allows for better visualization of the cellular components.

Methods and Procedures:

1. Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) Staining:

   • Procedure: Tissue samples are fixed and embedded in paraffin, sectioned, and then stained with hematoxylin (which stains nuclei blue) and eosin (which stains cytoplasm and extracellular matrix pink).

   • Uses: It is the most commonly used method for general histopathological examination. It allows for the study of tissue architecture, cell types, and structural changes.

2. Gram Staining:

   • Procedure: A bacterial smear is prepared on a slide, fixed, and stained with crystal violet, iodine, decolorized with ethanol, and counterstained with safranin.

   • Uses: Differentiates bacteria into Gram-positive (purple) and Gram-negative (pink) based on the structure of their cell wall.

3. Immunohistochemistry (IHC):

   • Procedure: Tissue sections are incubated with specific antibodies linked to a detectable marker (e.g., horseradish peroxidase). The antigen-antibody reaction is visualized through a chromogenic substrate.

   • Uses: IHC is used for detecting specific proteins, cell markers, or pathogens, particularly in cancer diagnosis and microbial identification.

4. Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) Staining:

   • Procedure: Tissues are treated with periodic acid to oxidize sugars, followed by staining with Schiff’s reagent. The procedure stains glycogen and mucopolysaccharides a magenta color.

   • Uses: This stain is useful for detecting fungal elements, certain types of bacteria, and tissue components like mucus or basement membranes.

5. Masson’s Trichrome Staining:

   • Procedure: Tissue sections are stained with a combination of aniline blue (for collagen), fuchsin (for muscle fibers), and hematoxylin (for nuclei).

   • Uses: It is particularly useful for identifying fibrous tissue and studying fibrosis, making it important in cardiovascular and liver pathology.

6. Silver Staining:

   • Procedure: Tissues are stained with silver salts to highlight structures such as reticular fibers and nerve fibers.

   • Uses: It is often used to detect microorganisms (like spirochetes) and tissue structures like reticulin fibers in the connective tissue.

In vitro staining techniques are crucial for enhancing the contrast and revealing specific cellular or tissue components. Each method serves a unique purpose, from differentiating microbial organisms to assessing tissue pathology, and plays a vital role in modern histology and diagnostic medicine.

(c) Explain the pharmacology and clinical use of atropine in animals. (15 Marks)
Ans: Atropine is an alkaloid derived from the belladonna plant, widely used in veterinary medicine. It acts as a competitive antagonist of acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors, leading to various physiological effects. It is commonly used in animals for its anticholinergic properties.

Pharmacology:

1. Mechanism of Action: Atropine blocks the action of acetylcholine on muscarinic receptors, inhibiting parasympathetic nervous system activity. This leads to increased heart rate, reduced secretion of bodily fluids, and relaxation of smooth muscles.

2. Absorption and Distribution: Atropine is readily absorbed after oral or parenteral administration, with rapid distribution to tissues, including the brain. It crosses the blood-brain barrier and may have central nervous system effects, such as excitement or sedation, depending on the dose.

3. Metabolism and Excretion: Atropine is metabolized in the liver, and its metabolites are excreted primarily in the urine.

Clinical Uses:

1. Pre-anesthetic Medication: Atropine is commonly used in pre-surgical settings to reduce salivation and respiratory tract secretions, ensuring a clear airway during anesthesia.

2. Bradycardia Treatment: It is used to treat bradycardia (slow heart rate) by increasing heart rate via its effect on the vagus nerve. This is particularly important in cases of anesthetic-induced bradycardia or heart block.

3. Antispasmodic Agent: Atropine is used to treat conditions involving smooth muscle spasms, such as colic in horses and gastrointestinal spasms in other animals.

4. Poisoning Treatment: Atropine is a specific antidote for poisoning by organophosphates, carbamates, and other cholinergic toxins, as it competes with excess acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors.

5. Ophthalmic Uses: Atropine is used in the form of eye drops to induce mydriasis (pupil dilation) for diagnostic purposes, such as retinal examination.

Adverse Effects:

1. Tachycardia, Dry Mouth, and Constipation: These are common side effects due to atropine’s anticholinergic action.

2. CNS Effects: High doses may cause restlessness, excitement, or even delirium.

3. Contraindications: Atropine should be used with caution in animals with glaucoma, heart disease, or urinary retention.

Atropine is a versatile drug with multiple clinical applications in veterinary practice, particularly in managing bradycardia, pre-anesthetic sedation, and treating toxicities. However, its use must be carefully monitored to avoid adverse effects, particularly in animals with underlying conditions.

Q3: 
(a) Discuss the etiology, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment of abomasal displacement in cows. (20 Marks)
Ans: Abomasal displacement (AD) is a common gastrointestinal disorder in dairy cows, especially in high-yielding animals. It involves the abnormal positioning of the abomasum (the fourth stomach compartment) either to the left (LDA) or right (RDA). This condition can lead to a variety of complications, including reduced feed intake, digestive disturbances, and even death if untreated.

Etiology:

1. Management Factors:

   • High-grain diets, sudden changes in feed, and a lack of adequate roughage predispose cows to abomasal displacement.

   • Stress from calving, transportation, or overcrowding increases the risk.

2. Physiological Factors:

   • Inadequate ruminal contraction or impaired abomasal motility leads to a buildup of gas and displacement.

   • After calving, changes in the size and position of abdominal organs may increase the likelihood of AD.

3. Genetic Factors: Some breeds, such as Holsteins, are more prone to abomasal displacement due to inherent anatomical factors.

Clinical Signs:

1. Decreased Appetite and Milk Production: Cows with AD often show signs of anorexia and reduced milk yield.
2. Abdominal Distension: Visible bloating or discomfort in the abdomen, particularly on the left side in the case of LDA.
3. Reduced Ruminal Activity: The rumen may show reduced movement, leading to reduced cud chewing.
4. Tachycardia and Dehydration: Increased heart rate and signs of dehydration due to poor nutrient absorption.
5. Signs of Colic: Cows may exhibit signs of discomfort or pain, such as kicking at the abdomen or lying down frequently.

Diagnosis:

1. Clinical Examination: Palpation of the left side of the abdomen can detect the characteristic "pinging" sound, indicating gas accumulation in the abomasum.
2. Ultrasound or X-ray: These imaging techniques can help visualize the displaced abomasum, confirming the diagnosis.
3. Blood Tests: Mild metabolic alkalosis may be observed in the blood, particularly in cases of LDA.

Treatment:

1. Surgical Correction:

   • Left-sided displacement (LDA): The most common surgical treatment is the “roll and tack” procedure or, in severe cases, abomasopexy to fix the abomasum in place.

   • Right-sided displacement (RDA): Requires more intensive surgical intervention, including decompression of the abomasum and repositioning.

2. Conservative Treatment: In mild cases, medical management using fluids and electrolyte balance therapy may be effective to stabilize the cow.
   

3. Supportive Care: Use of anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce pain and promote recovery, along with correcting dietary imbalances.

Abomasal displacement is a critical condition in dairy cows that affects both the cow’s well-being and farm productivity. Timely diagnosis and appropriate treatment, either through surgery or conservative management, are essential to ensure recovery and prevent further complications.

(b) Describe the causes, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, prevention and treatment of hypomagnesemic tetany. (15 Marks)
Ans: Hypomagnesemic tetany, also known as grass tetany, is a metabolic disorder that primarily affects grazing cattle, particularly during periods of lush pasture growth. It is caused by a deficiency of magnesium in the blood, leading to muscle spasms, seizures, and, in severe cases, death.
Causes:

1. Low Magnesium Levels in Pasture: High-potassium (K) and low-magnesium (Mg) soils reduce magnesium availability in pastures, particularly in spring and autumn.
2. Impaired Magnesium Absorption: Cattle on high-potassium or high-nitrogen diets may have impaired magnesium absorption from the digestive tract.
3. Stress and High Lactation: Lactating cows are more susceptible due to higher magnesium demand for milk production, making them prone to deficiency.

Clinical Symptoms:

1. Muscle Tremors and Seizures: Sudden onset of muscle twitching, tremors, and convulsions, particularly in the legs and neck.
2. Nervous Behavior: Cattle may exhibit restlessness, irritability, and aggressiveness.
3. Stiffness and Difficulty in Movement: Cows may be unable to walk or stand due to muscle spasms.
4. Death: In severe cases, death may occur within 24–48 hours due to respiratory failure or cardiac arrest.
5. Rapid Respiration and Increased Heart Rate: As a result of muscle spasms and electrolyte imbalance.

Diagnosis:

1. Clinical Signs: Based on sudden onset of symptoms like muscle tremors and seizures, especially in cows grazing on lush pastures.
2. Blood Tests: Measurement of blood magnesium levels reveals low serum magnesium (<1.2 mg/dL) and increased serum potassium and calcium levels.
3. Response to Treatment: A positive response to magnesium supplementation can help confirm the diagnosis.

Prevention:

1. Magnesium Supplementation: Provide magnesium salts (such as magnesium oxide) in the diet or as free-choice supplements.
2. Balanced Diet: Ensure adequate nutrition, including supplementation with magnesium during periods of high-risk (spring and autumn).
3. Reduce Potassium Intake: Avoid feeding cows high-potassium forage, which can interfere with magnesium absorption.

Treatment:

1. Intravenous Magnesium Administration: Magnesium sulfate or magnesium chloride is administered intravenously to quickly correct the deficiency.
2. Oral Magnesium Supplementation: Following initial treatment, oral magnesium supplements can be provided to maintain blood magnesium levels.
3. Calcium Gluconate: If hypocalcemia is also present, calcium gluconate should be administered to avoid further complications.

Hypomagnesemic tetany is a life-threatening condition that can be prevented with proper pasture management and magnesium supplementation. Early diagnosis and treatment with intravenous magnesium and supportive care can significantly improve the prognosis.

(c) Justify the enhanced acceptability of indigenous livestock breeds in changing climate scenario. (15 Marks)
Ans: Indigenous livestock breeds have long been adapted to the specific environmental conditions of their regions. In the face of climate change, these breeds are gaining renewed attention due to their resilience and ability to withstand extreme environmental stressors, such as rising temperatures, drought, and disease outbreaks.

Key Points:

1. Climate Resilience:

   • Indigenous breeds are naturally adapted to local climatic conditions, including heat, humidity, and low feed availability. For example, the Gir cow (native to India) is known for its heat tolerance, making it well-suited for hot, arid environments.

   • These breeds are less susceptible to heat stress, which is becoming increasingly important as global temperatures rise.

2. Disease Resistance:

   • Indigenous breeds often exhibit a higher level of resistance to diseases prevalent in their native regions. For instance, the Indian buffalo breed, Murrah, has inherent resistance to certain parasitic infections, which helps in regions with high parasite load.

   • Their immunity is more robust, reducing the need for chemical treatments and vaccines that may be less effective in changing climates.

3. Efficient Resource Utilization: Indigenous breeds are efficient in utilizing local resources, including poor-quality forage, which may become more common as climate change affects crop production. The Sahiwal cattle, for example, can thrive on low-quality grass, making them ideal for regions with scarce grazing land.

4. Lower Carbon Footprint: Indigenous breeds are often more resource-efficient, requiring less feed and water compared to high-yielding exotic breeds. This efficiency leads to lower greenhouse gas emissions per unit of milk or meat produced, aligning with sustainable agricultural practices in a changing climate.

5. Adaptability to Shifting Ecosystems: As climate change alters ecosystems, indigenous breeds’ adaptability to different and shifting agricultural systems gives them an edge. Their ability to survive in diverse environments ensures their long-term viability as farming practices change.

Indigenous livestock breeds are invaluable in the face of climate change due to their resilience, disease resistance, and ability to thrive on locally available resources. Their enhanced acceptability is critical for sustainable livestock farming in the future, promoting both environmental sustainability and food security

Q4:
(a) Explain various biological samples to be collected for laboratory investigation in bovines along with the tests which can be applied on these samples. (20 Marks)
Ans: Laboratory investigations play a critical role in diagnosing diseases, monitoring health, and formulating effective treatment plans for bovines. Various biological samples are collected for examination, and each sample can be analyzed through specific diagnostic tests to detect pathogens, identify metabolic imbalances, and assess the overall health of the animals.
Biological Samples and Corresponding Tests:

1. Blood Sample:

   • Collection Method: Blood is typically drawn from the jugular vein or coccygeal vein using sterile needles and syringes.

   • Tests:

     • Hematology: Complete blood count (CBC) to assess red and white blood cell counts, hemoglobin levels, and presence of infections.

     • Serology: Detection of antibodies or antigens for diseases like brucellosis, tuberculosis, or leptospirosis.

     • Biochemical Tests: Liver and kidney function tests, glucose levels, and electrolyte balance.

     • PCR and ELISA: For the detection of specific pathogens like Mycobacterium bovis (bovine tuberculosis).

2. Urine Sample:

   • Collection Method: Urine is collected either by catheterization or from the floor of the stall.

   • Tests:

     • Urinalysis: To detect the presence of protein, glucose, ketones, or blood, indicating conditions like urinary tract infection or ketosis.

     • Microscopy: Detection of urinary casts, crystals, and bacteria.

     • Kidney Function Tests: Assessment of creatinine and urea concentrations.

3. Fecal Sample:

   • Collection Method: Fresh fecal samples are collected directly from the rectum or from the ground.

   • Tests:

     • Fecal Examination: Detection of gastrointestinal parasites like Strongylus or Ascaris using floatation techniques.

     • Bacterial Culture: To detect infections such as Salmonella or E. coli.

     • PCR: For diagnosing diseases like Johne’s disease or foot and mouth disease (FMD).

4. Milk Sample:

   • Collection Method: Milk is collected from the udder using sterile equipment to prevent contamination.

   • Tests:

     • Somatic Cell Count (SCC): To detect mastitis and the severity of udder infections.

     • Bacterial Culture: For detecting mastitis pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus.

     • Antibiotic Residue Testing: To ensure milk quality and safety for human consumption.

5. Semen Sample:

   • Collection Method: Semen is collected using artificial vagina or electroejaculation methods.

   • Tests:

     • Semen Analysis: To assess sperm count, motility, and morphology.

     • Infectious Disease Testing: To screen for diseases like Brucella or tuberculosis, which can affect reproductive performance.

6. Tissue Sample:

   • Collection Method: Tissue samples are collected via biopsy or postmortem examination.

   • Tests:

     • Histopathology: To examine tissue structure and detect tumors or infections.

     • Bacterial and Viral Cultures: For isolating pathogens causing diseases like foot and mouth disease or tuberculosis.

The collection of biological samples for laboratory investigations is essential in diagnosing and managing diseases in bovines. By using various tests, veterinarians can detect infections, metabolic disorders, and other health issues, ensuring timely treatment and proper management of the livestock.

(b) Discuss different types of conventional vaccines and name the animal diseases against which the vaccines are available in India. (15 Marks)
Ans: Vaccination is a critical component of veterinary healthcare, used to prevent a wide range of diseases in animals. Conventional vaccines are typically made from inactivated or attenuated pathogens, providing immunity without causing the disease itself. In India, several vaccines are available to prevent common livestock diseases, ensuring healthy and productive animals.
Types of Conventional Vaccines:

1. Killed (Inactivated) Vaccines:

   • Description: These vaccines contain pathogens that have been killed or inactivated so they cannot cause disease but still stimulate the immune system.

   • Examples:

     • Rinderpest Vaccine: Killed vaccine for protection against rinderpest (a viral disease that affects cattle).

     • Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Vaccine: Inactivated vaccine that protects cattle and buffaloes from FMD.

     • Brucella Vaccine: Inactivated vaccine used in cattle to prevent brucellosis.

2. Live Attenuated Vaccines:

   • Description: These vaccines use live pathogens that have been weakened so they cannot cause disease but still replicate in the body and provide immunity.

   • Examples:

     • Bovine Tuberculosis (TB) Vaccine: An attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis is used in cattle to provide immunity against tuberculosis.

     • Newcastle Disease Vaccine: A live attenuated vaccine for poultry to prevent Newcastle disease.

     • Rabies Vaccine: Live attenuated vaccine for rabies in cattle, dogs, and other animals.

3. Subunit or Component Vaccines:

   • Description: These vaccines use specific components of a pathogen (such as proteins or antigens) rather than the whole pathogen to induce immunity.

   • Examples:

     • Hepatitis B Vaccine for Cattle: Contains a subunit of the virus to protect against bovine hepatitis.

     • Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) Vaccine: Contains viral glycoproteins to prevent respiratory disease in cattle.

4. Toxoid Vaccines:

   • Description: These vaccines are made from toxins produced by pathogens, which are inactivated to prevent the toxic effects but retain their ability to stimulate immunity.

   • Examples:

     • Tetanus Toxoid Vaccine: Used in cattle and horses to prevent tetanus caused by Clostridium tetani.

     • Botulism Toxoid Vaccine: For the prevention of botulism in horses and other livestock.

Diseases Prevented by Vaccines in India:

1. Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)
2. Rinderpest (eradicated but once a major concern)
3. Brucellosis
4. Bovine Tuberculosis
5. Newcastle Disease in Poultry
6. Hepatitis in Cattle
7. Tetanus
8. Rabies
9. Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR)
10. Anthrax in Livestock

Conventional vaccines are vital in preventing infectious diseases in livestock, ensuring animal health and productivity. In India, a wide range of vaccines is available for preventing both viral and bacterial diseases, protecting the agricultural economy and public health.

(c) Describe the boundaries and contents of pelvic cavity in male and female bovines. (15 Marks)
Ans: The pelvic cavity in bovines is an important anatomical region that houses the reproductive organs, urinary system, and parts of the digestive system. It differs in structure between male and female animals due to the distinct reproductive functions in each.
Boundaries of the Pelvic Cavity:

1. Dorsal Boundary: Formed by the sacrum and first few caudal vertebrae.
2. Ventral Boundary: Made up of the pelvic bones, including the pubic bone and the ischium.
3. Lateral Boundary: Composed of the hip bones, the ilium, and the pelvis floor muscles (levator ani and coccygeus).
4. Caudal Boundary: The coccygeal vertebrae and the muscles of the perineum (external anal sphincter).

Contents of the Pelvic Cavity:

1. Male Bovines:

   • Reproductive Organs:

     • Prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and the testes in the scrotum.

     • Vas deferens and epididymis.

   • Urinary System: Urethra, bladder, and associated muscles.

   • Rectum: Part of the digestive system for fecal storage.

2. Female Bovines:

   • Reproductive Organs:

     • Uterus (bicornuate), ovaries, fallopian tubes, cervix, and vagina.

     • Broad ligament supports the uterus and ovaries.

   • Urinary System: Urethra, bladder, and associated muscles.

   • Rectum: Same as in males, part of the digestive system.

The pelvic cavity in bovines serves critical functions related to reproduction, digestion, and excretion. The differences between the male and female pelvic cavity reflect the specialized reproductive anatomy of each sex, facilitating reproduction and maintaining overall bodily functions. Understanding these structures is essential for veterinary practitioners dealing with reproductive health and surgical procedures.