History, Art and Culture: July 2025 Current Affairs | Current Affairs & General Knowledge - CLAT PDF Download

Mansa Devi Temple

Why in News?

A recent tragic stampede at the Mansa Devi temple in Haridwar resulted in the loss of eight lives and injuries to 28 individuals. This incident has raised concerns regarding crowd management and safety at religious sites.

Key Takeaways

• The Mansa Devi temple is a significant Hindu shrine situated in Haridwar, Uttarakhand.
• It is dedicated to the goddess Mansa Devi, a form of Shakti (Goddess Durga).

Additional Details

• Location: The temple is perched atop the Bilwa Parvat on the Sivalik Hills, which are the southernmost range of the Himalayas.
• Pilgrimage Importance: Also known as Bilwa Tirth, it is one of the Panch Tirth (Five Pilgrimages) in Haridwar, symbolizing the longstanding tradition of 'Shakti' worship in Northern India.
• Historical Significance: The current structure was built by Maharaja Gopal Singh of Manimajra between 1811 and 1815.
• The temple complex spans approximately 100 acres and features a traditional North Indian architectural style.
• It houses two principal deities: Mansa Devi and her sister Chandi Devi.

This temple not only serves as a religious site but also represents a cultural heritage, attracting numerous devotees and tourists each year.

Paithani Sarees

Why in News?

Recently, the Prime Minister of India praised the traditional craftsmanship of Paithani sarees during his monthly radio programme, highlighting their significance in Indian culture.

Key Takeaways

• Paithani sarees are acclaimed as the 'mahavastra' of Maharashtra.
• They are characterized by rich, vibrant colors woven from pure silk and gold zari.
• Their origin traces back to the town of Paithan, situated by the River Godavari.

Additional Details

• Features of Paithani Sarees:
  • Handmade from pure silk, dyed in traditional colors.
  • Distinctive motifs on the kath (border) and padar (pallu), often featuring designs like parrots, lotuses, and peacocks.
  • Available in six or nine-yard lengths, traditionally favored by Maharashtrian brides.
  • Awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2010.
• Paithani sarees are recognized for their exquisite quality and are among the most expensive sarees in India, symbolizing Maharashtrian heritage and craftsmanship.

In conclusion, Paithani sarees not only represent a rich tradition but also embody the skilled artistry of Maharashtra, making them a cherished garment in Indian society.

Divya Deshmukh Becomes New Chess World Champion

Why in News?

Divya Deshmukh has made history by becoming India’s first Women’s World Cup Champion and only the fourth Indian woman Grandmaster. She achieved this remarkable feat by defeating Koneru Humpy in the final held in Batumi, Georgia.

Key Takeaways

• Divya Deshmukh won the FIDE Women’s World Cup in 2025.
• She is recognized as India’s 4th woman Grandmaster.
• Her significant victories include the U-20 Girls’ World Champion in 2024 and the Asian Women’s Champion in 2023.
• She was a key contributor to India’s gold medal at the 2025 Chess Olympiad in Budapest.
• Divya became India’s youngest Woman FIDE Master (WFM) at the age of 7 in 2013.

Additional Details

• About FIDE: The Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE) is the global governing body of chess, established in 1924 and headquartered in Switzerland.
• World Championship Format: The championship is conducted over 14 classical games, requiring a player to score 7.5 points to win. If tied at 7-7, rapid and blitz games serve as tiebreakers.
• Qualification Path: Players qualify through Zonal and Continental Championships, the FIDE World Cup, and the Candidates Tournament, where the top player faces the reigning champion.
• Key FIDE Events: The FIDE World Cup features a knockout format, while the Women's World Cup follows a similar structure for top female players.
• Title Hierarchy: The highest titles include Grandmaster (GM), International Master (IM), and FIDE Master (FM), along with Women’s titles such as Woman Grandmaster (WGM).

Divya Deshmukh's achievements not only highlight her individual talent but also signify a momentous occasion for women in chess, inspiring future generations.

Lessons from the Chola Legacy

Why in News?

Prime Minister Narendra Modi's recent visit to Tamil Nadu during the Aadi Thiruvathirai festival highlighted the significance of the Chola dynasty, particularly focusing on its legacy of governance and culture. This visit was notable for its subtle political messaging regarding the importance of the Chola administration, especially under Rajendra Chola I.

Key Takeaways

• The Chola Empire exemplified effective local governance through village assemblies (sabhas).
• Advanced techniques in water management and infrastructure development are relevant today.
• Chola temple architecture offers insights into seismic safety and resilience.
• The Chola legacy informs contemporary political narratives and regional identity.
• Implementation of the 73rd and 74th Amendments can enhance local governance structures.

Additional Details

• Village Self-Governance: The Chola Empire empowered local sabhas with authority over taxation, public works, and justice. For example, the Uttaramerur inscription details electoral procedures, serving as a historical model for transparent local elections in today’s Panchayati Raj system.
• Efficient Land and Revenue Administration: Chola governance included meticulous land surveys categorizing land by productivity, which allowed for fair taxation. Modern municipalities can adopt similar methods through digitisation and GIS-based mapping for effective property tax collection and urban planning.
• Sustainable Infrastructure Development: The Chola constructed durable public structures, like the Brihadisvara Temple, which has endured for over 1,000 years. This showcases advanced engineering techniques that can inspire modern disaster-resilient urban planning.
• Water Management Practices: The Cholas were pioneers in constructing tanks and canals for rainwater harvesting and irrigation. Modern regions facing water scarcity can learn from these traditional methods to enhance climate-resilient agriculture.
• Community Involvement: Local communities were involved in maintaining water systems, ensuring accountability and efficiency. Today’s Panchayati Raj Institutions can engage village-level water user associations for improved decentralized water management.
• Seismic Safety in Temple Architecture: Chola temples, such as the Brihadisvara Temple, feature designs that distribute weight evenly and are built with interlocking stones, enhancing their resistance to earthquakes. Understanding these techniques can inform modern construction practices in seismic-prone areas.
• Cultural Nationalism: Highlighting the Chola legacy fosters national pride and cultural unity, establishing ancient India as an influential civilization in global maritime trade.
• Importance of 73rd/74th Amendments: The Chola system of village self-governance reflects the principles of decentralisation envisioned in these amendments, promoting efficient local administration and civic involvement.

In conclusion, the Chola dynasty's governance, infrastructure, and community involvement present valuable lessons for contemporary governance models. By integrating these historical practices with modern strategies, we can create robust and sustainable systems that honor our heritage while addressing current challenges.

Gavri Festival

Why in News?

The Gavri Festival is an annual event celebrated by the Bhil community of Mewar, Rajasthan, marking a significant cultural tradition that has been ongoing for centuries.

Key Takeaways

• The Gavri Festival is a 40-day ritual combining dance and drama.
• It portrays the eternal struggle between good and evil, represented by Goddess Amba and the demon Bhiamwal.
• The festival has roots dating back to the 3rd or 4th century and is integral to the identity of the Bhil tribe.

Additional Details

• Historical Significance: The festival has been noted during the reign of Siddh Raj Jai Singh in Gujarat, showcasing its long-standing cultural relevance.
• Performance Style: The dance-drama, known as Gavri or Rai Nach, features a blend of mime and dialogue, with men performing all roles.
• The narrative is enhanced by a character named Kutkadiya, who introduces each scene, enriching the audience's understanding and engagement.
• Vibrant costumes and lively background music contribute to the festival's energetic atmosphere.

The Gavri Festival not only entertains but also serves to ensure the well-being of the performers' family members, instilling a sense of pride and cultural heritage within the community.

Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple

Why in News?

Recently, the Nashik rural police uncovered a significant black-marketing operation involving darshan passes at the prestigious Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple, highlighting the need for better regulation and oversight in religious tourism.

Key Takeaways

• The Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is located in Trimbak, Nashik district, Maharashtra.
• It is known as one of the twelve Jyotirlingas in India.
• The temple features a unique architectural style with intricate carvings and three lingams representing the Hindu trinity.

Additional Details

• About Trimbakeshwar Temple: This well-known Hindu temple is situated 28 km from Nashik, near the Brahamagiri mountain, which is the source of the Godavari River. Constructed by the third Peshwa, Balaji Bajirao, between 1740-1760, it stands on the site of an older temple.
• Architecture: The temple showcases a harmonious blend of traditional Hindu design and local artistic elements, featuring detailed carvings and sculptures that illustrate various mythological tales and deities. The complex also houses shrines dedicated to other gods and goddesses.
• Jyotirlingas: A Jyotirlinga is a shrine where Lord Shiva is worshipped in the form of a Jyotirlingam. There are 12 main Jyotirlingas in India, each symbolizing a different aspect of Lord Shiva.
• List of Jyotirlingas:The 12 Jyotirlingas include:
  • Somnath Jyotirlinga in Gir, Gujarat
  • Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga in Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh
  • Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh
  • Omkareshwar Jyotirlinga in Khandwa, Madhya Pradesh
  • Baidyanath Jyotirlinga in Deoghar, Jharkhand
  • Bhimashankar Jyotirlinga in Maharashtra
  • Ramanathaswamy Jyotirlinga in Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu
  • Nageshwar Jyotirlinga in Dwarka, Gujarat
  • Kashi Vishwanath Jyotirlinga in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
  • Trimbakeshwar Jyotirlinga in Nasik, Maharashtra
  • Kedarnath Jyotirlinga in Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand
  • Ghrishneshwar Jyotirlinga in Aurangabad, Maharashtra

The recent uncovering of the black-marketing racket has raised awareness about the importance of maintaining the sanctity of religious practices and ensuring fair access to devotees at the Trimbakeshwar Temple.

150 Years of Jim Corbett

Why in News?

As India commemorates the 150th birth anniversary of Jim Corbett (1875–2025), there is an opportunity to reflect on his multifaceted legacy as a hunter, naturalist, author, and conservationist, after whom the renowned Corbett National Park is named.

Key Takeaways

• Jim Corbett, born Edward James Corbett, was a British hunter and renowned naturalist.
• He authored several famous books on wildlife and conservation.
• Corbett transitioned from hunting man-eating animals to advocating for wildlife conservation.
• In 1957, India’s first national park was renamed Jim Corbett National Park in his honor.

Additional Details

• Biography: Jim Corbett was born in 1875 and gained fame in Kumaon, where he hunted man-eating tigers and leopards.
• Famous Works: His notable publications include Man-Eaters of Kumaon, The Man-Eating Leopard of Rudraprayag, and Jungle Lore.
• Conservation Efforts: Corbett became increasingly concerned about the decline in tiger populations and deforestation, leading him to advocate for wildlife protection.
• Corbett National Park: Established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, it was renamed in 1957 and plays a crucial role in conservation efforts.
• Geographical Significance: The park is located in the Nainital district of Uttarakhand and is part of the Corbett Tiger Reserve.
• Biodiversity: The park hosts over 230 tigers, various species of deer, elephants, and a rich variety of flora and fauna.

Jim Corbett's legacy continues to influence wildlife conservation in India, making his life and work a critical part of the country’s ecological heritage.

Chola Gangam Lake Development

Why in News?

The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu has announced the development of the ‘Chola Gangam’ lake in honor of the birth anniversary of the legendary Tamil king, Rajendra Chola I.

Key Takeaways

• Chola Gangam Lake is located near Gangaikonda Cholapuram in the Ariyalur District of Tamil Nadu, India.
• The lake, also known locally as Ponneri lake, was constructed during the reign of Rajendra Chola I.

Additional Details

• Historical Significance: The lake was excavated by King Rajendra Chola I as part of his northern campaign, as referenced in the Tiruvalangadu Copper Plates.
• Water Supply System: A carefully planned canal was built to connect the lake to the Kollidam River, ensuring a reliable water source for the lake.
• The lake relies on surface water collected during the rainy season and historically irrigated 1,564 acres of land, primarily serving as a drinking water source for Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Rajendra Chola I, often referred to as Rajendra the Great, ruled from 1014 to 1044 CE, succeeding his father Rajaraja I. He is known for his military conquests, earning titles such as Gangaikonda Cholan, which means "Bringer of the Ganges River," and Kadaram Kondan, meaning "Conqueror of Kedah." To honor his victories and establish his legacy, he founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and dedicated a temple to Lord Shiva, named Gangaikondacholeshwaram Mahadev.

Paika Rebellion Row: NCERT Omission Sparks Political Uproar in Odisha

Why in News?

Former Odisha Chief Minister Naveen Patnaik has vocally protested against the omission of the 1817 Paika Rebellion from the NCERT's new Class VIII history textbook, calling it a "huge dishonour" to the courageous Paikas. The NCERT has responded by stating that the rebellion will be included in a forthcoming second volume of the textbook, set to be released later this year.

Key Takeaways

• The Paika Rebellion is a significant event in Odisha's history, representing a resistance against British colonial rule.
• Political reactions in Odisha highlight the importance of this historical event in regional identity and pride.

Additional Details

• The Paikas: These were traditional foot soldiers in Odisha, recruited since the 16th century by the Gajapati kings. They were granted hereditary rent-free lands known as nish-kar jagirs, which they cultivated during peacetime.
• Decline Under British Rule: The erosion of their privileges and the imposition of new land revenue policies by the British East India Company created widespread discontent among the Paikas, culminating in the rebellion.
• British Betrayal: In 1803, Colonel Harcourt's forces captured key territories in Odisha after a deal with Mukunda Deva II of Khurda, which the British failed to honor, leading to increased tensions.
• The uprising began in March 1817, with around 400 Kondhs joining the Paikas under the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar. They launched attacks on British establishments, but the rebellion was eventually suppressed.
• The legacy of the Paika Rebellion has evolved into a symbol of Odia nationalism, with recent calls for its recognition as India's "first war of independence."

The Paika Rebellion remains a vital part of Odisha's historical narrative and continues to evoke strong sentiments, as evidenced by the recent political uproar regarding its representation in educational materials.

Mangal Pandey (1827-1857)

Why in News?

The Prime Minister recently paid tribute to the renowned freedom fighter Mangal Pandey on the occasion of his birth anniversary, acknowledging his significant role in India's struggle for independence.

Key Takeaways

• Mangal Pandey was born on 19 July 1827 in Nagwa village, Ballia district, Uttar Pradesh.
• He joined the British East India Company’s army in 1849 as a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry.
• His opposition to the Enfield rifle cartridges, which were greased with cow and pig fat, sparked a revolt.
• On 29 March 1857, he attacked British officers, inciting other sepoys to join the rebellion.
• He was executed by hanging on 8 April 1857, becoming a martyr for the cause of independence.
• Mangal Pandey is remembered as the "Hero of the First War of Indian Independence" and a symbol of resistance.

Additional Details

• 1857 War of Independence: This conflict, also known as the Great Rebellion of 1857, marked a significant uprising against British rule in India.
• Sepoy Composition: Over 87% of the British Indian Army comprised Indians, who faced severe discrimination and inequities.
• Root Causes of the Revolt:
  • Military Discontent: Soldiers faced unequal pay, limited promotion opportunities, and denied allowances.
  • Religious Insensitivity: The introduction of cartridges greased with animal fat insulted both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
  • Economic Hardship: Heavy taxation, the decline of traditional crafts, and rising unemployment fueled dissatisfaction.
  • Political Grievances: The annexation of Indian states and oppressive laws contributed to widespread unrest.
• The outbreak of the rebellion began with Mangal Pandey’s defiance on 29 March 1857.
• On 10 May 1857, sepoys at Meerut revolted after refusing to use the cartridges and were subsequently imprisoned.
• Rebels marched to Delhi and declared Bahadur Shah II as Emperor, marking a pivotal moment in the uprising.
• The revolt spread across various regions, including Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bihar, and Bareilly, drawing mass participation from sepoys, peasants, landlords, and regional rulers.

The rebellion was brutally suppressed by 1859, with Delhi recaptured in September 1857. The British East India Company was dissolved, and India came under direct British Crown rule, marking the beginning of the British Raj. Following the revolt, Indian representation in the army was significantly reduced, and repressive policies intensified, contributing to a legacy of racial discrimination and harsh governance in the years that followed.

Tipu Sultan and Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-1799)

Why in News?

The recent omission of Tipu Sultan, Haidar Ali, and the Anglo-Mysore Wars from the NCERT Class 8 Social Science textbook has sparked discussions about their significance in India's colonial history.

Key Takeaways

• Tipu Sultan and Haidar Ali played crucial roles in resisting British colonial expansion in India.
• The Anglo-Mysore Wars were key conflicts between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company.

Additional Details

• Rise of Haidar Ali: Haidar Ali began his career as a horseman in the Mysore army and became the de facto ruler by 1761, recognized for his military prowess.
• Military Reforms: He introduced Western military training, established arms factories with French assistance, and enhanced the cavalry and artillery.
• Administrative Innovations: Haidar Ali implemented a new calendar, land revenue reforms, and minted coins in gold, silver, and copper featuring Persian inscriptions.
• Governance and Industry: He organized governance into seven departments, promoted the silk industry, and envisioned the construction of the Kannambadi Dam.
• French Alliance: His strong ties with France alarmed the British during the Anglo-French rivalry.
• Technological Advancement: Haidar utilized iron-cased Mysorean rockets, which later inspired the British to develop their own Congreve rockets.
• Moral Governance: He enforced moral discipline by banning liquor, gambling, and prostitution.
• Religious Policy: Although a devout Muslim, he patronized Hindu temples and mathas, though he faced criticism for intolerance in certain annexed areas.

About the Anglo-Mysore Wars

• First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–69): A coalition of the British, Marathas, and the Nizam formed against Haidar Ali, who managed to neutralize the Marathas and secure the Nizam's support, resulting in the Treaty of Madras (1769) which restored the status quo.
• Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84): Triggered by British violations of the Treaty of Madras, Haidar formed alliances with Marathas and the Nizam. Major victories included the capture of Arcot, but he died in 1782, after which Tipu Sultan continued the resistance, leading to the Treaty of Mangalore (1784).
• Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92): Caused by Tipu's attack on Travancore, a British ally, the British, led by Cornwallis, launched a coordinated campaign. The conflict ended with Tipu ceding half of his territory and paying ₹3 crore under the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).
• Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799): British strategy under Wellesley aimed to isolate Tipu Sultan diplomatically. Tipu was ultimately killed defending Seringapatam on May 4, 1799, marking the end of native resistance in South India.

Aftermath of the Wars

• Fall of Resistance: The death of Tipu Sultan signaled the end of organized military opposition to British rule in the South.
• British Control: The Wodeyars were reinstated as puppet rulers under the Subsidiary Alliance, while significant territories were annexed by the British.
• Territorial Division: The Nizam received Gooty and Gurramkonda, as the Marathas declined a British land offer.
• Administrative Changes: Mysore came under direct British rule in 1831 due to alleged misgovernance, but was restored to the Wodeyars in 1881 by Lord Ripon under a constitutional monarchy.

The Anglo-Mysore Wars exemplify how native resistance, through modernization and strategic alliances, could challenge colonial powers. The advancements in military rocketry by Tipu Sultan were later studied and adapted by the British for their own military strategies.

Machilipatnam as Ancient Port is Set for Big Revival

Why in News?

Machilipatnam, a historic port city located on India’s east coast, is undergoing a significant transformation with the establishment of a modern Greenfield port, poised to enhance its maritime legacy.

Key Takeaways

• Machilipatnam has been an important port city for around 1,700 years.
• The new port development aims to restore the city’s historical significance in maritime trade.
• Historical connections include trade with regions as far as Rome and Southeast Asia.

Additional Details

• Alternate Names: Machilipatnam is also known by names such as Masulipatnam, Maisolia, and Manjarika.
• Geographic Location: It is situated in Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, on the southeastern Coromandel Coast, approximately 70 km east of Amaravati.
• Historical Importance: For about 1,700 years, it played a crucial role in maritime trade, connecting with various global traders.
• Global Trade Connections: The port attracted merchants from Rome, Arabia, Persia, and Europe, primarily known for exporting high-quality Muslin textiles.
• Cultural Contributions: Notable for Kalamkari art, which involves hand-painted or block-printed textile designs.
• Dynastic Port Usage:
  • Satavahanas (1st BCE – 2nd CE): Used as a significant trade gateway.
  • Vishnukundins (4th–6th CE): Wealth from trade supported Buddhist monument construction, such as Nagarjunakonda.
  • Qutb Shahis (16th–17th CE): Established it as a major hub for diamonds, muslin, and Kalamkari.
  • Nizams of Hyderabad (18th century): Managed the port until partial cession to the British.
• Mentions in Ancient Texts: Machilipatnam is cited in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and listed as Maisolos in Ptolemy’s Geographia.
• Colonial Involvement:
  • The Dutch constructed a fort in the 17th century.
  • The British East India Company established its first factory in the Bay of Bengal here in 1611, with the port changing hands among the French, Dutch, and British until British control solidified in 1759.
• Decline of the Port:
  • Anchorage issues made it unsuitable for large ships, requiring anchorage 5 miles offshore.
  • A devastating cyclone in 1779 caused significant destruction and loss of life.
  • Trade shifted to Madras (Chennai) and Visakhapatnam under British rule, contributing to its decline.
• Post-Independence Claim: In 1947, the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad sought to reclaim the port for access to the sea for an independent Hyderabad state.
• Modern Revival: Construction of the Greenfield port at Manginapudi is underway, with operational goals set for 2026.

The revival of Machilipatnam as a modern port is anticipated to restore its historical maritime significance and boost economic development in the region.

Literature in News: Thirukkural

Why in News?

The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu has emphasized the importance of declaring the Thirukkural as a national book and establishing a prominent organization in Delhi to promote the teachings of Thiruvalluvar.

Key Takeaways

• The Thirukkural is a classical Tamil literary work comprising 1,330 couplets (kurals), each made up of seven words.
• It is renowned for its universal values, secular ethics, and moral guidance that transcend time and culture.
• Traditionally attributed to Valluvar, the text's dating is debated, with scholars suggesting it was composed between 300 BCE and 500 CE.

Additional Details

• Components:The Thirukkural is divided into three major sections:
  • Aram (Virtue / Dharma): Focuses on personal morality, non-violence, and ethical conduct, emphasizing values such as truth, charity, self-control, and compassion.
  • Porul (Wealth / Artha): Addresses social, political, and economic life, including governance, justice, taxation, warfare, diplomacy, and administration.
  • Inbam (Love / Kama): Explores human emotions and personal relationships, particularly themes of romance and domestic life.
• Key Features: The Thirukkural promotes ethical values like non-violence (ahimsa), self-restraint, and hospitality, while also addressing societal themes such as education, friendship, and social justice.
• Cultural Reverence: It is often referred to as the "Tamil Veda" and the "Divine Book," symbolizing its moral and spiritual significance.
• Literary Qualities: Celebrated for its brevity, clarity, and philosophical depth, making it widely accessible and admired.

The Thirukkural serves as a vital part of Tamil literature and ethics, encapsulating profound teachings that remain relevant in contemporary society.

Back2Basics: Sangam Literature

Sangam literature refers to the ancient collection of Tamil texts composed during the Sangam period, traditionally dated from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The term "Sangam" signifies "assembly" or "academy," representing gatherings of Tamil poets sponsored by the Pandya kings.

Historical Context

• According to tradition, there were three Sangams:
  • First Sangam (Madurai): No known literary works have survived.
  • Second Sangam (Kapadapuram): Only the Tolkappiyam (grammar and poetics) has survived.
  • Third Sangam (Madurai): The source of most surviving Sangam literature.

Nature and Content

• Literary Form: Written in classical Tamil poetry, reflecting secular themes such as trade.
• Societal Insight: Offers a comprehensive view of ancient Tamil society.
• Key Texts:Include the earliest Tamil grammar and works on poetic theory, such as:
  • Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies): Collections of short poems.
  • Pattupattu (Ten Idylls): Longer narrative poems.
  • Padinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works): Didactic texts focused on ethics and morality.
  • Three Epics: Silappatikaram, Manimekalai, and Sivaga Sindamani: Compiled later but influenced by Sangam themes.

Maratha Military Landscapes of India

Why in News?

Recently, the 'Maratha Military Landscapes of India' has been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, marking it as India's 44th property to receive this prestigious recognition.

Key Takeaways

• The Maratha Military Landscapes date from the 17th to 19th centuries CE.
• This network comprises twelve significant forts that showcase the strategic military vision and architectural ingenuity of the Maratha Empire.
• The forts are distributed across Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

Additional Details

• List of Forts:The twelve forts include:
  • Salher
  • Shivneri
  • Lohgad
  • Khanderi
  • Raigad
  • Rajgad
  • Pratapgad
  • Suvarnadurg
  • Panhala
  • Vijaydurg
  • Sindhudurg
  • Gingee Fort
• Protected Status: Many of these forts are protected, with Shivneri, Lohgad, Raigad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg, and Gingee under the Archaeological Survey of India, while Salher, Rajgad, Khanderi, and Pratapgarh are protected by the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums of the Government of Maharashtra.
• Geographical Diversity:The forts are located in various terrains:
  • Hill Forts: Salher, Shivneri, Lohgad, Raigad, Rajgad, and Gingee.
  • Hill-Forest Fort: A fort nestled within dense woods.
  • Hill-Plateau Fort: A fort located on a plateaued hill.
  • Coastal Fort: Positioned along the shoreline.
  • Island Forts: Khanderi, Suvarnadurg, and Sindhudurg, which are surrounded by the sea.

In summary, the inscription of the Maratha Military Landscapes on the UNESCO World Heritage List highlights the historical significance and architectural brilliance of the Maratha Empire, ensuring the preservation of these cultural landmarks for future generations.

Kailash-Mansarovar Yatra Resumes After Five Years

Why in News?

After a hiatus of five years caused by the Covid-19 pandemic and ongoing tensions between India and China, the Kailash-Mansarovar Yatra has resumed in 2025. This year, the Ministry of External Affairs has selected 750 pilgrims to undertake the journey.

Key Takeaways

• The yatra involves five batches of 50 pilgrims traveling via Uttarakhand's Lipulekh Pass.
• Additionally, 10 batches of 50 pilgrims each are taking the route through Sikkim's Nathu La Pass.

Additional Details

• Mount Kailash: Rising to 6,638 meters in Tibet’s Ngari Prefecture, Mount Kailash is a significant religious site for multiple faiths, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Tibetan Bon traditions.
• Spiritual Significance: Hindus regard it as the abode of Lord Shiva, Jains see it as the place of enlightenment for their first leader, Buddhists view it as the center of the universe, while Bon adherents believe it is home to the sky goddess Sipaimen.
• Two sacred lakes, Manasarovar (freshwater) and Rakshastal (saltwater), lie south of the mountain and are integral to these spiritual traditions.
• Mount Kailash is the source of four major rivers: the Brahmaputra, Indus, Sutlej, and Karnali, enhancing its geographical importance.
• The Kailash-Mansarovar pilgrimage, once limited to advanced spiritual practitioners, became more accessible to ordinary Indians in the early 20th century, especially after the British opened Tibet for exploration.
• In 1905, Charles Sherring, a district collector, advocated for improvements to the pilgrimage route, significantly increasing interest among the Hindu community.
• By the 1930s, around 730 Indian pilgrims embarked on the journey annually, until political changes halted the pilgrimage after China's annexation of Tibet in 1950.
• The yatra resumed in 1981, allowing Indian pilgrims to return via Lipulekh.
• The pilgrimage includes a 90 km trek around Lake Mansarovar and a more challenging 52 km trek around Mount Kailash.
• In recent years, infrastructural developments have made the trek significantly easier, with reduced distances for trekking and the introduction of motorable roads.

The resumption of the Kailash-Mansarovar Yatra marks a return to a cherished spiritual journey for many, reflecting the evolving accessibility and significance of this pilgrimage over time.

Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas

Why in News?

The International Buddhist Confederation (IBC) recently celebrated Ashadha Purnima, also referred to as Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas, at Mulagandha Kuti Vihara in Sarnath.

Key Takeaways

• The observance commemorates the day when Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment.
• It is celebrated annually on the full moon of Ashadha (Ashadha Purnima), typically in July.

Additional Details

• First Sermon: The sermon, known as Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, was delivered at Deer Park (Isipatana) in Sarnath, near Varanasi.
• Core Teachings Introduced: This sermon introduced the foundational teachings of Buddhism, including the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
• Formation of Sangha: Buddha's five former ascetic companions—Kaundinya, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama, and Assaji—became the first monks of the Buddhist Sangha.
• Symbolic Representation: The Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Dharma) symbolizes the "turning of the wheel of law" and the spread of the Buddha’s teachings.
• Significance:
  • It marks the beginning of the Varsha Vassa, a three-month monastic retreat during the rainy season.
  • It is recognized as the second most important Buddhist festival after Buddha Purnima.
• Modern Day Significance:
  • In India, it commemorates Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s conversion to Buddhism with his followers at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur, on October 14, 1956.
  • Millions reaffirm their commitment to Buddhist values and take 22 vows to renounce caste-based discrimination.
• Global Observance: The day is celebrated internationally under various names, including Esala Poya in Sri Lanka, Asanha Bucha in Thailand, and Asadha Purnima in India.

Ancient City of Penico

Why in News?

Archaeologists have recently uncovered a remarkable 3,500-year-old city named Penico in Peru, providing significant insights into ancient civilizations.

Key Takeaways

• Penico is a lost city that dates back to approximately 1,800 to 1,500 BC.
• It is located around 200 km north of Lima, Peru, at an altitude of 600 meters (1,970 feet).
• The city is thought to be a continuation of the Caral society, the oldest known civilization in the Americas.

Additional Details

• Geographical Context: Penico is situated near Caral, established around 3,000 BC in the Supe Valley, emphasizing its historical significance.
• Architectural Findings: Researchers have identified up to 18 structures, including ceremonial temples and residential complexes.
• Central Plaza: Notable for its sculptural reliefs, particularly depictions of the pututu, a conch shell trumpet.
• Cultural Artifacts: Clay sculptures of humans and animals, ceremonial objects, and intricate necklaces made from beads and seashells were discovered.
• Strategic Location: The height of the city’s structures suggests settlers chose this location to enhance the visibility and significance of their buildings while protecting against natural disasters.
• Trade Hub: Penico likely served as a crucial trading link between early Pacific coast communities and those in the Andes and Amazon basin.

The discovery of Penico not only sheds light on the architectural and cultural advancements of ancient societies but also highlights the interconnectedness of early civilizations across different regions.

Sheesh Mahal Restoration

Why in News?

The Sheesh Mahal, a historical palace from the Mughal era, located in Shalimar Bagh, North Delhi, has recently undergone restoration and was unveiled by the Union Minister for Culture and Tourism.

Key Takeaways

• Constructed in 1653 by Izz-un-Nisha Begum, the wife of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.
• Modeled after the famous Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir, serving as a royal retreat.
• Originally built with bricks and red sandstone, featuring distinct architectural elements.
• Notable historical significance, including Aurangzeb's coronation in 1658.
• Declared a monument of national importance in 1983, with ongoing preservation efforts by ASI.

Additional Details

• Construction Details: The palace includes entry gates on the east and west, leading to a central hall with compartments on each side. The main building features a Baradari with a water channel.
• Artistic Significance: The well-preserved chambers exhibit mirror work and paintings in the styles of Kangra and Rajasthani qalam, depicting the poetic works of Keshav, Surdas, and Bihari.
• The adjacent red sandstone structure is believed to have functioned as a hamam (public bathhouse).

The restoration of Sheesh Mahal not only revitalizes a significant piece of Mughal architecture but also enhances our understanding of India's rich cultural heritage.

About Chautal

Why in News?

Recently, the Prime Minister of India was welcomed in Trinidad and Tobago with a performance of the traditional Bhojpuri Chautal, highlighting its cultural significance and musical heritage.

Key Takeaways

• Chautal: A rhythmic framework composed of 12 beats.
• Usage: Commonly accompanies Dhrupad and Dhamar styles of singing and instrumental performances.
• Connection: Strongly associated with North Indian classical music, especially Hindustani classical music.

Additional Details

• Name Meaning: The term "Chautal" translates to "four claps," which refers to its structural division.
• Vibhag Structure:
  • One perspective suggests it consists of four vibhags with patterns of 4, 4, 2, and 2 matras.
  • Another viewpoint equates its structure to Ektal, proposing it has six vibhags of two matras each.
• Pakhawaj Tradition: Chautal is linked to the pakhawaj, which influences its heavy and powerful performance style, contrasting with the delicate style of the tabla.

Through this performance, the significance of Chautal in Indian classical music is reaffirmed, showcasing its unique rhythmic qualities and cultural heritage.

Alluri Sitaram Raju: A Revolutionary Leader

Why in News?

The Defence Minister recently highlighted that the government has drawn inspiration from the legendary revolutionary Alluri Sitarama Raju by appointing Draupadi Murmu as the President of India, emphasizing the ideals he stood for.

Key Takeaways

• Alluri Sitaram Raju was a prominent Indian revolutionary who fought against British colonial rule.
• Born on July 4, 1897, in Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, he led the Rampa Rebellion of 1922.
• He was a champion for the rights of Adivasis and opposed the oppressive 1882 Madras Forest Act.

Additional Details

• Rampa Rebellion: This uprising was a significant event where Raju mobilized Adivasis and farmers against British authorities, employing guerrilla warfare tactics.
• Nickname: He was affectionately known as "Manyam Veerudu" (Hero of the Jungle) due to his heroic actions and leadership.
• Legacy: Despite the suppression of the movement in early 1922, Raju's efforts raised political awareness among tribal communities and left a lasting impact on India's freedom struggle.
• After a prolonged resistance, he was captured in 1924 and executed, with his tomb located in Krishnadevipeta, near Visakhapatnam.

Alluri Sitaram Raju's valiant struggle against one of the most powerful empires of his time has been recognized widely. The British government acknowledged his strategic prowess in guerrilla warfare, which led to significant expenditures to suppress his movement, marking him as a formidable figure in India's fight for independence.

Who are the Girmitiyas?

Why in News?

PM Narendra Modi, while speaking in Trinidad and Tobago, paid tribute to the Girmitiyas—19th-century indentured Indian labourers who played a crucial role in shaping Indo-Caribbean culture.

Key Takeaways

• The term "Girmitiyas" derives from "girmit," a mispronunciation of the word "agreement" by Indian labourers.
• Most Girmitiyas were from eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, areas affected by poverty and famine.

Additional Details

• Origin of the Labourers: The majority of Girmitiyas were recruited from impoverished regions, particularly eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• Language and Community: They primarily spoke Bhojpuri, Awadhi, or Hindi and belonged to agricultural castes.
• Role of Recruitment Agents: Agents known as arkatis lured labourers with promises of good wages, often concealing the harsh realities of plantation work.
• Scale and Scope of Migration: Between 1834 and 1920, over 1.2 million Indians were sent to British colonies, including Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad & Tobago, Guyana, South Africa, and Suriname.
• Cultural Continuity Abroad: Despite their minimal belongings, Girmitiyas preserved Indian languages, religious practices, and cultural expressions such as Ramleela in the Caribbean.

Indentured Labour System: A New Form of Slavery

• Post-Abolition Labour Need: Following the abolition of slavery in 1834, the British established the Indian Indentured Labour System to fulfill the demand for plantation workers.
• Contract Terms and Reality: Although contracts were supposed to last five years, labourers were often misled, endured poor working conditions, and were restricted from changing employers.
• Criminalisation of Movement: Labourers could be arrested for vagrancy if found outside the plantation without proper documentation.
• Punitive Wage Deductions: The double-cut system, which deducted two days’ pay for one day’s absence, exemplified the exploitation faced by workers.
• Wage Withholding: Employers often withheld wages, delaying repatriation and trapping labourers in economic dependency.
• Gender Exploitation: Women, often brought in for demographic balance, faced wage discrimination and sexual abuse.
• Critique by Historians: While colonial rulers termed it a "Great Experiment," historian Hugh Tinker labeled it "a new system of slavery" in his 1974 work.

Gandhiji’s Campaign Against Indenture

• Early Opposition: Mahatma Gandhi opposed the indentured labour system after witnessing its abuses during his legal work in South Africa.
• Malaviya’s Blocked Attempt: In 1917, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya attempted to introduce a bill for abolition, which the British colonial government rejected.
• Protest Strategy: Gandhi initiated an all-India movement, leveraging the press, public meetings, and moral advocacy to garner support.
• Engagement with British: Gandhi met with Viceroy Lord Chelmsford and rallied national leaders against the practice.
• Finally, Abolition: Public pressure led to the official abolition of indentured labour on July 31, 1917.
• Moral Significance: Gandhi later reflected in My Experiments with Truth that this victory represented India’s moral awakening through nonviolent protest.

In summary, the legacy of the Girmitiyas reflects a significant chapter in the history of Indian migration and labor, highlighting the struggles and perseverance of those who contributed to the cultural tapestry of the Caribbean.

170th Anniversary of Santhal Revolt

Why in News?

Jharkhand observed 'Hul' Diwas to commemorate the 170th anniversary of the Santhal Revolt, which took place on June 30, 1855.

Key Takeaways

• The Santhal Hul is recognized as one of the earliest organized uprisings against British colonialism in India.
• Prominent leaders of the revolt included Sidho, Kanho, Chand, Bhairav Murmu, and sisters Phulo and Jhano.
• The revolt primarily focused on tribal unity and agrarian issues rather than religious or elite political motivations.

Additional Details

• Overview: The Santhal Hul began in present-day Jharkhand and is observed annually as Hul Diwas.
• Causes of the Revolt:
  • Exploitation by Landlords: The revolt opposed the British East India Company, the Zamindari system, and moneylenders who exploited tribal communities.
  • Damin-i-Koh Policy: Implemented in 1832, this policy aimed to resettle Santhals in Rajmahal Hills, leading to land alienation and forced labor.
  • Suppression Measures: The British imposed Martial Law on November 10, 1855, and crushed the uprising by January 3, 1856, using modern firearms and war elephants.
• The revolt inspired key legislative changes, including the Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act (1876) and the Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908), which aimed to protect tribal land rights.

The legacy of the Santhal Revolt remains significant, as the Santhals are now India's third-largest tribal group, residing mainly in Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal, and they continue to use the 'Ol Chiki' script to preserve the Santhali language.

Dalai Lama and His Reincarnation

Why in News?

The 14th Dalai Lama, who is turning 90 on July 6, 2025, has recently reiterated that the lineage of the Dalai Lama will persist, which directly challenges the stance taken by China regarding the future of this spiritual position.

Key Takeaways

• The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the Gelug school, the most prominent tradition in Tibetan Buddhism.
• The title "Dalai Lama," which translates to "Ocean of Wisdom," was first bestowed in the 16th century by Mongol ruler Altan Khan.

Additional Details

• Role: The Dalai Lama is considered the reincarnation of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, manifesting in human form.
• Tenzin Gyatso: The 14th Dalai Lama was born in 1935 in Taktser, Tibet, and was recognized in 1939, being enthroned in 1940.
• Exile to India: After China occupied Tibet, the Dalai Lama sought asylum in India in 1959, where he established the Tibetan Government-in-Exile in Dharamsala.
• Political Transition: In 2011, he transferred political authority to an elected leader of the Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile (TPiE), while maintaining his spiritual leadership.
• Global Peace Advocate: He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989 for his commitment to non-violence and is a strong advocate for interfaith harmony and secular ethics.

Key Notes on Tibetan Buddhism

• Theology: Tibetan Buddhism combines Mahayana philosophy, Tantric (Vajrayana) rituals, and Bon traditions.
• Major Schools: It encompasses four schools—Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug—where the Gelug school was founded by Je Tsongkhapa in the 14th century.
• Reincarnation System: The Tulku system includes leaders like the Panchen Lama and Karmapa, believed to be reincarnated teachers.
• Textual Foundation: Core texts consist of the Kangyur (Buddha's teachings) and Tengyur (scholarly commentaries).
• Meditation Traditions: Notable practices include Dzogchen and Mahamudra, which aim to realize the true nature of the mind.
• Institutional Legacy: Monasteries such as Drepung, Ganden, and Tashi Lhunpo are crucial centers for learning and ritual.
• Global Influence: Tibetan Buddhism is flourishing in the Himalayas and expanding its reach in Western countries.