Maharashtra Specific Local Laws

Table of Contents
1. Maharashtra Rent Control Act, 1999
2. Maharashtra Co-operative Societies Act, 1960
3. Maharashtra Land Revenue Code, 1966
4. Maharashtra Public Trusts Act, 1950
5. Maharashtra Stamp Act, 1958
6. Maharashtra Civil Courts Act - Detailed Exam Notes
7. Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act (MCOCA), 1999
8. Recent Laws Maharastra Specific
9. Maharashtra Land Revenue Code - 2025 Amendment
10. Maharashtra "Jan Vishwas (Provisions Amendment) Bill, 2025"
11. Upcoming Tougher "Shakti Law" (Women's Safety Legislation)
12. Key Bombay High Court Clarification under Maharashtra Apartment Ownership Act
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Maharashtra Rent Control Act, 1999

The Maharashtra Rent Control Act, 1999 consolidates rent laws across Maharashtra. It aims to regulate rent, prevent unreasonable eviction, ensure fair return to landlords, and protect tenants from exploitation. This Act is frequently asked in Maharashtra Judiciary due to its practical relevance, especially in metropolitan cities.

1. Objectives & Applicability

The Act aims to balance the rights of tenants and landlords by:

• Regulating standard rent and preventing excessive rent demands.
• Providing legal grounds on which a landlord may evict a tenant.
• Ensuring essential services are not withheld.
• Introducing a special procedure for eviction of licensees.

Applicability

• Applies to premises in Mumbai, Pune and other notified areas.
• Government premises, charitable institutions, and premises let to banks or public sectors may be exempt.

2. Important Definitions

• Landlord: A person entitled to receive rent, including successors.
• Tenant: Includes any person remaining after termination of tenancy.
• Premises: Any building or part of building let for residence, business or education.
• Licensee: A person allowed temporary occupation under leave & license agreement.
• Standard Rent: Lawful rent determined under the Act.

3. Standard Rent

Standard rent may be fixed based on:

• Municipal valuation
• Cost of construction
• Prevailing rent prior to 1st October 1987

Tenants or landlords may apply to the Court for fixation of standard rent. Charging rent above standard rent is illegal.

4. Permitted Increases

Landlord may increase rent only under specific grounds:

• Increase in municipal taxes
• Repair charges
• Improvement or structural alteration
• Electricity or water charges

5. Repairs & Essential Services

Landlords must maintain structural and major repairs. Tenants may carry out urgent repairs and deduct cost from rent (subject to conditions). Withholding essential services like water, electricity, or sanitation is illegal and punishable.

6. Grounds for Eviction

Eviction can be ordered only on legally recognized grounds:

• Non-payment of rent for 6 months.
• Bona fide requirement by landlord or dependent family.
• Unauthorized subletting.
• Nuisance or illegal activities.
• Permanent structural changes without permission.
• Demolition and reconstruction for building safety or development.
• Non-user of premises for 6 months without reasonable cause.

7. Licensee Eviction - Section 24

This section provides summary eviction procedure for licensees residing in premises after license expiry. The Small Causes Court may order eviction quickly based on documentary proof of license.

8. Jurisdiction of Courts

• Small Causes Court handles rent matters in major cities.
• Civil Courts handle rent matters in other areas.
• Bar on jurisdiction of other courts in matters specifically covered under the Act.

9. Appeal Procedure

Appeal lies to Appellate Bench of Small Causes Court or District Court depending on jurisdiction.

Key Points for Maharashtra Judiciary

• Always mention Section 24 procedure in questions on licensee eviction.
• Know differences between tenant and licensee.
• Memorize all grounds of eviction and permitted increases.
• Standard rent calculation basics must be clear.

Maharashtra Co-operative Societies Act, 1960

This Act governs registration, functioning, management, supervision, audit and dissolution of co-operative societies in Maharashtra. It is extremely important for Maharashtra Judiciary, with predictable questions on Sections 73, 78, 79, 91, and inquiry/audit provisions.

1. Objectives of the Act

• Promote orderly development of co-operatives.
• Ensure democratic functioning and accountability.
• Provide dispute redressal through Co-operative Courts.
• Ensure transparent financial practices through mandatory audits.

2. Key Definitions

• Society: Association of persons united to promote common economic interest.
• Member: Includes original, nominal, associate and sympathizer members.
• Officer: Committee member or person holding managerial position.

3. Registration of Societies

The Registrar may register a society upon satisfaction of:

• Proper application by minimum required persons.
• Compliance with model bye-laws.
• Objects consistent with principles of co-operation.

Upon registration, the society becomes a body corporate.

4. Membership Rights & Duties

• Right to vote in general body meetings.
• Right to inspect books (subject to rules).
• Duty to follow bye-laws and pay dues.

5. General Body (Supreme Authority)

The General Body approves accounts, elects the committee and amends bye-laws. No decision contrary to the Act or rules is valid.

6. Management Committee - Section 73

• Responsible for day-to-day management.
• Tenure generally 5 years.
• Committee may be superseded under Section 78 for mismanagement or failure in duties.

7. Inquiry, Inspection & Supervision - Sections 78-81

The Registrar may order:

• Inspection of accounts.
• Inquiry into constitution or working of a society.
• Supersession of committee for misconduct.
• Direction for corrective action.

8. Audit - Section 81

• Mandatory yearly audit by certified auditor.
• Audit report must highlight irregularities.
• Failure attracts penal consequences.

9. Disputes - Section 91

Disputes touching the constitution, working or business of a society shall be referred to the Co-operative Court.

Examples of disputes under Section 91:

• Expulsion of member
• Recovery of dues
• Election disputes (with exceptions)
• Disputes among committee members

10. Winding Up

The Registrar may order winding up when a society becomes defunct, acts against its objectives, or becomes insolvent. A liquidator is appointed to settle assets and liabilities.

11. Appeals, Revision & Review

• Appeals lie to the Co-operative Appellate Court.
• Registrar has revisional powers in certain matters.

Key Points for Maharashtra Judiciary

• Section 73 (committee duties), 78 (supersession) and 81 (audit) must be quoted in answers.
• Section 91 is ALWAYS asked - understand what disputes fall within it.
• Know difference between inquiry (S.83), inspection (S.84), and surcharge proceedings (S.88).
• Memorize powers of Registrar and Co-operative Courts.

Maharashtra Land Revenue Code, 1966

The Maharashtra Land Revenue Code (MLRC) consolidates laws relating to land revenue, land tenures, land records, revenue officers, appeal structure, and penalties for unlawful use of land. It is extremely predictable in Judiciary exams; questions commonly come from hierarchy, land records, mutation, NA permission, and appeals.

1. Objectives of the Code

• Establish uniform land revenue administration across Maharashtra.
• Provide a structured hierarchy of revenue officers.
• Regulate classification, use, transfer, and occupancy of land.
• Maintain updated land records including 7/12 extract and mutation register.
• Provide mechanism for appeals, revisions, and reviews in revenue matters.

2. Important Definitions

• Land: Includes benefit arising from land, things attached to earth, and rights connected with land.
• Occupant: A person legally in possession of land and responsible for payment of land revenue.
• Holding: A parcel of land held by an occupant.
• Revenue Officer: Includes Tahsildar, Naib Tahsildar, SDO, Collector, and Commissioner.

3. Revenue Officers & Their Powers

• Tahsildar: Handles mutation entries, disputes about possession, removal of encroachments.
• Sub-Divisional Officer (SDO): Appellate authority for orders of Tahsildar.
• Collector: Supervises district land administration; grants NA permissions.
• Divisional Commissioner: Second appellate authority.

4. Land Records System

Land records maintained under MLRC include:

• Record of Rights (RoR): Contains tenant, ownership, cultivation, and mutation details.
• 7/12 Extract (Satbara Utara): Shows occupant details, cultivation type, rights and encumbrances.
• Mutation Register: Records changes in rights due to sale, inheritance, partition, gift etc.

Legal Presumptions

Entries in the RoR are presumed to be correct unless proved otherwise. Mutation entries do not confer title; they only reflect changes.

5. Mutation of Land

Mutation means updating land records when rights change.

• Application made to Talathi or directly recorded by reporting authority.
• Tahsildar hears objections.
• Final mutation entry certified after inquiry.

6. Land Revenue, Assessment & Non-Agricultural (NA) Use

• Land revenue assessment is periodical and depends on location, fertility, irrigation etc.
• For Non-Agricultural use (commercial, residential, industrial), NA permission must be obtained from Collector.
• Unauthorized NA use attracts penalties and eviction.

7. Occupancy Rights & Restrictions

• Occupant Class-I: Full rights of transfer without government permission.
• Occupant Class-II: Restrictions on transfer without Collector approval.

8. Encroachment & Penalties

Unauthorized occupation of government land is an offence.

• Tahsildar issues notice.
• Encroacher may be fined and removed.
• Structures may be demolished if not legalized.

9. Appeals, Revision & Review

Revenue Appeal Structure:

• Order of Talathi → Appeal to Tahsildar
• Order of Tahsildar → Appeal to SDO
• Order of SDO → Appeal to Collector
• Order of Collector → Appeal to Commissioner

Revision: Higher authority may call for records to examine legality.

Review: Officer may review own order if conditions are satisfied.

Key Exam Pointers

• Difference between Occupant Class I & II is very important.
• NA permission procedure frequently appears in mains.
• Mutation entries do not create title - must be stated in answers.
• Know the exact appeal hierarchy.

Maharashtra Public Trusts Act, 1950

The Maharashtra Public Trusts Act (MPTA), 1950 governs all public charitable and religious trusts in Maharashtra. It emphasizes transparency, accountability, and protection of trust property. For Judiciary exams, questions often arise from Sections 18-21, 36, 41-D, 50-A and powers of the Charity Commissioner.

1. Objectives of the Act

• Ensure proper administration and protection of trust property.
• Mandate compulsory registration of all public trusts.
• Empower Charity Commissioner to supervise and regulate trusts.
• Provide remedies in case of mismanagement or breach of trust.

2. Key Definitions

• Public Trust: Trust for public religious or charitable purpose.
• Trustee: Person administering trust property.
• Charity Commissioner: Principal officer exercising control over trusts.
• Manager: Person managing secular activities of religious trust.

3. Registration of Public Trusts - Sections 18-21

Every public trust must be registered with the Assistant/Deputy Charity Commissioner.

Procedure

• Application filed within 3 months of creation of trust.
• Inquiry conducted under Section 19 to determine existence and nature of trust.
• Trust name, objects, trustees, movable and immovable properties recorded in Register of Public Trusts.

Changes Report - Section 22

Any change in trustees, property, address or objects must be reported within 90 days.

4. Accounts and Audit - Sections 32-34

• Trustees must maintain regular books of account.
• Annual accounts to be submitted in prescribed form.
• Audit by Chartered Accountant or approved auditor is mandatory.

5. Powers of Charity Commissioner

Section 36 - Permission for Alienation

Trust property (sell, exchange, gift, lease beyond specific term) cannot be transferred without prior sanction.

Section 41-D - Suspension or Removal of Trustee

Grounds include:

• Misconduct
• Neglect of duty
• Breach of trust
• Misappropriation of funds

This is one of the most frequently asked sections.

Section 50-A - Framing of Schemes

Charity Commissioner may frame schemes for better management of trusts.

6. Cy-Pres Doctrine - Section 55

If trust objects cannot be fulfilled, property may be applied to nearest possible charitable purpose. Courts examine original intention of settlor.

7. Suits Relating to Trusts - Section 50

Suits may be filed for:

• Recovery of trust property
• Removal of trustee
• Directions for administration
• Declaration of rights

Permission of Charity Commissioner is required.

8. Appeals & Revisions

• Appeals lie to Charity Commissioner or District Court depending on order.
• Revisional powers allow correction of illegal or improper orders.

Key Judiciary Exam Points

• Know Section 36, 41D, 50, 50A and registration procedure thoroughly.
• In Mains, always explain why Charity Commissioner supervision is essential.
• Changes Report (Section 22) is frequently asked in MCQs.
• Cy-pres doctrine must be illustrated with simple example.

Maharashtra Stamp Act, 1958

The Maharashtra Stamp Act, 1958 prescribes stamp duty on instruments executed within the State of Maharashtra. The Act specifies which instruments are chargeable with duty, the basis for valuation of instruments, methods of stamping and the consequences of insufficient stamping. This law is short but yields highly scoring, objective and practical questions in examinations.

1. Objectives and Scope

The purpose of the Stamp Act is to collect state revenue through levy of stamp duty on specified instruments and to ensure that documents used as evidence in courts carry proof of payment of the appropriate duty. The Act applies to all instruments executed within Maharashtra and to certain instruments executed outside if they relate to property situated in the State.

2. Important Definitions

• Instrument: Any written document by which a right is created, transferred, limited, extended or extinguished.
• Conveyance: A document that transfers ownership of immovable property.
• Consideration: The amount or value stated in the instrument for the transaction, which is often the basis for valuation.
• Market Value: The fair market value of the property in question, which the authority may use for valuation in case of dispute or suspected undervaluation.

3. Instruments Chargeable with Duty

The Act lists classes of instruments that attract stamp duty. Common instruments that are compulsorily stampable include conveyances, sale deeds, gift deeds, mortgages, leases, agreements for sale, bonds, promissory notes, powers of attorney and settlement deeds. Some documents are exempt under specified conditions such as certain government instruments or court orders.

4. Basis of Valuation

Stamp duty is ordinarily computed either on the consideration mentioned in the instrument or on the market value of the property, whichever is higher. The State Government issues schedules and ready reckoner rates that serve as guidance for valuation. Where the authority suspects undervaluation, it may undertake an inquiry and refer the matter to the Collector or Inspector for fixation of market value.

5. Modes of Payment of Stamp Duty

Stamp duty may be paid by adhesive stamps, impressed stamps, franking, or by e-stamping methods where the State authorizes electronic stamping. Each mode has procedural rules for authentication, cancellation and record-keeping. E-stamping is increasingly used to facilitate transactions and reduce fraudulent reuse of adhesive stamps.

6. Consequences of Insufficient Stamping

An instrument that is insufficiently stamped is not admissible as evidence in judicial proceedings unless the deficiency is cured as per statutory procedure. The Collector has power to adjudicate on the amount of duty payable and may impose penalties for insufficient stamping. Parties are required to pay the proper duty along with penalty and interest, where applicable.

7. Adjudication and Refund

Where there is a dispute about the liability to pay duty or the amount payable, parties can apply for adjudication before the competent authority. If duty has been paid in excess or has been paid in error, the law provides for refund after due verification and subject to prescribed conditions. The adjudication process involves notice, hearing and a reasoned order by the stamping authority.

8. Penalties and Offences

• Execution or use of documents which are not duly stamped attracts penalties and may render the instrument inadmissible.
• Forgery or fraudulent evasion of stamp duty is a punishable offence with fines and possible prosecution under penal provisions.

9. Practical Points for Exam Answers

• Always state whether the instrument is compulsorily stampable and on what basis duty is calculated.
• Distinguish between consideration value and market value in valuation questions.
• Mention procedural remedies for insufficient stamping - application to Collector, payment of penalty and subsequent admissibility.
• Remember that ready reckoner rates may be updated by the State and answers should indicate that current schedules must be consulted for exact rates.

Quick Tip: For objective questions, focus on which documents are stampable, how valuation is determined, and the key consequence - inadmissibility in evidence if under-stamped.

Maharashtra Civil Courts Act - Detailed Exam Notes

The Maharashtra Civil Courts Act provides the statutory framework for constitution, jurisdiction and administration of civil courts in the State. It prescribes the classes of civil courts, their territorial and pecuniary jurisdiction, the distribution of business among judges and appellate mechanisms. This Act is straightforward and yields direct fact-based questions in exams.

1. Purpose and Scope

The purpose of the Act is to organize the civil judicial machinery in Maharashtra, establish clear jurisdictional limits for district and subordinate courts, and frame rules to ensure fair distribution of work and efficient disposal of civil cases. The Act applies to all civil courts in the State except where special provisions apply.

2. Court Structure

The State's civil adjudicatory structure typically includes the District Court, Civil Judge (Senior Division) Courts, and Civil Judge (Junior Division) Courts. The Act prescribes appointment, jurisdiction and powers of each class of court and empowers the High Court or State Government to amend or add rules about the number and location of courts.

3. Pecuniary Jurisdiction

Pecuniary limits determine which court will entertain a suit based on the value of the subject matter. The Act or subordinate rules set monetary thresholds for the Junior Division and Senior Division courts. For judicial answers, quote broad principles: lesser valued suits begin in Junior Division; higher valued suits begin in Senior Division or District Court, depending on the fixed limits.

4. Territorial Jurisdiction

The Act sets territorial jurisdiction: suits must be filed in courts within whose local limits the cause of action wholly or partly arises, or where the defendant ordinarily resides, or where the property in dispute is situated. The Act recognizes the need for local venue to secure convenience of parties and witnesses.

5. Distribution of Business

The Act empowers the District Judge to distribute business among judges and form rosters to ensure equitable allocation. Distribution rules may account for special subject benches, urgent matters, family courts or specialized list handling by certain judges.

6. Appeals and Revision

First appeals and second appeals are governed by this Act and by the Civil Procedure Code (CPC) procedural rules. The Act defines which courts hear appeals from subordinate courts and specifies grounds for second appeals or appeals involving substantial questions of law. Revision jurisdiction exists to correct jurisdictional or legal errors in subordinate courts' orders.

7. Administrative Machinery

The Act contemplates administrative positions such as Registrars, Additional Registrars, and ministerial staff who assist judges in maintaining records, issuing process and managing court roll. Proper administrative functioning is essential for timely disposal of cases.

8. Special Provisions & Transfers

The Act provides for transfer of cases between courts in the interest of justice or to avoid multiplicity of proceedings. It also recognizes the creation of special courts or benches for family matters, commercial disputes, or other categories as required by State policy or High Court directions.

9. Exam-Focused Points

• Memorize the hierarchy and general pecuniary classification of Junior and Senior Division courts.
• Be clear about territorial jurisdiction - cause of action, defendant residence, and location of property.
• Understand distribution of business and powers of the District Judge in allocation.
• Distinguish appeal jurisdiction under this Act from appeal provisions under CPC where necessary.

Note: The Maharashtra Civil Courts Act is simple: use it to answer straightforward jurisdictional and administrative questions. For case-law or procedural nuances, combine statutory position with CPC provisions in mains answers.

Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act (MCOCA), 1999

The Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act (MCOCA), 1999 is special legislation enacted to combat organised crime by providing enhanced investigative powers, special trial procedures, and measures for attachment and forfeiture of property involved in organised criminal activities. The statute is often tested in recent papers because of its relevance to urban crime and high-profile investigations.

1. Objectives and Scope

The Act seeks to curtail organized crime syndicates by:

• Defining organised criminal activity and syndicates;
• Empowering investigating agencies to use specialized techniques, including interception;
• Providing for special courts to ensure expeditious trials;
• Allowing forfeiture of proceeds and property used in organised crime.

2. Key Definitions

• Organised Crime: A continuing unlawful activity carried out by a syndicate or gang involving multiple offences and coordinated acts.
• Organised Crime Syndicate: A structured association of persons involved in continuing unlawful activity.
• Continuing Unlawful Activity: A sequence of offences committed over time as part of a common plan.

3. Special Courts and Trials

MCOCA provides for constitution of special courts to try offences under the Act. These courts are vested with powers intended to expedite trials and handle complex evidence typical of organised crime. Trials in such courts follow procedures compatible with fair trial norms but include some special processes for handling sensitive material.

4. Investigation Powers and Conditions

The Act prescribes that investigations should ordinarily be conducted by officers of a prescribed minimum rank to ensure experience and accountability. It authorizes interception of communications and surveillance in accordance with established safeguards. The Act permits recording of confessions and other special evidence subject to strict conditions and judicial scrutiny.

5. Evidence, Confessions and Interception

MCOCA includes provisions on admissibility and weight of intercepted communications and certain types of confessions. The statute outlines safeguards to protect privacy and to ensure evidentiary reliability, including requirements for authentication and chain of custody for electronic evidence.

6. Forfeiture and Attachment of Property

When property is reasonably believed to be proceeds of organised crime or used for committing continuing unlawful activity, the competent authority may provisionally attach the property. After due adjudication, the property may be finally forfeited to the State. The Act provides mechanisms for notice, representation and adjudication so that accused persons have an opportunity to contest attachment.

7. Sanctions, Punishments and Bail

MCOCA prescribes stringent punishments for offences involving organised crime, which may be higher than those in ordinary penal statutes. The Act also tightens bail norms in specified circumstances to prevent the accused from continuing criminal enterprise during trial. These provisions require careful balancing with constitutional safeguards for personal liberty.

8. Appeals and Judicial Review

Convictions and orders under MCOCA are subject to appeal to appropriate higher courts. The ordinary appellate and revisional jurisdiction of High Courts remains intact to ensure legal oversight. The interplay between special statutory procedure and constitutional safeguards is often the subject of judicial scrutiny.

Exam-Oriented Points

• Be able to define organised crime and continuing unlawful activity precisely.
• Explain the rationale for special courts and the safeguards to protect fair trial rights.
• Discuss the legal and constitutional issues that arise from interception and admissibility of electronic evidence.
• Remember the procedural safeguards for attachment and forfeiture of property to avoid arbitrariness.

Recent Laws Maharastra Specific

1. Maharashtra Land Revenue Code - 2025 Amendment

The State Government amended the Maharashtra Land Revenue Code, 1966 through a new amendment bill introduced in 2025. The amendment aims to address administrative and legal issues arising from earlier High Court observations regarding fee collection and the scope of Government powers under the Code.

Key Changes Introduced

• The amendment gives the Government authority to prescribe maximum permissible fees for land conversion, land use change, and mortgage-related processes.
• It validates prior fee collection retrospectively, ensuring that previously levied fees-declared invalid by the High Court-are now deemed lawful.
• This amendment stabilizes revenue administration by eliminating disputes regarding the validity of past transactions.

Why Was the Amendment Introduced?

The High Court earlier declared certain Government notifications invalid because the State lacked clear statutory authority to levy or revise specific land-related fees. This created uncertainty for thousands of land conversion and NA permission applications. The amendment therefore fills the legal gap by expressly empowering the Government to fix maximum fees and retrospectively validating earlier actions.

Impact on Land Revenue Practice and Disputes

• Ongoing disputes about refund of "illegally collected fees" become largely infructuous due to retrospective validation.
• Authorities can now process land conversion and mortgage applications without legal hesitation.
• Applicants may find reduced scope for challenging fee amounts, since fee ceilings are now backed by statute.

Exam Focus:
• Reason for the amendment (High Court invalidation of state notifications).
• Effect of retrospective validation.
• Impact on fairness, refund claims, and administrative certainty.

2. Maharashtra "Jan Vishwas (Provisions Amendment) Bill, 2025"

The Maharashtra Assembly passed the Jan Vishwas (Provisions Amendment) Bill, 2025 as part of a broader governance reform to reduce the criminalization of minor regulatory violations. The aim is to ease compliance, reduce burden on courts, and modernize penalty structures.

Purpose of the Reform

• To decriminalize minor offences that do not involve moral wrongdoing or significant harm.
• To shift from criminal prosecution to administrative penalties for routine regulatory lapses.
• To update fine amounts to reflect modern economic realities, with some fines increased up to ₹5 lakh.

Why This Reform Is Significant

The judiciary in Maharashtra faces a heavy backlog. Many petty cases-such as minor municipal violations, licensing delays, or small-scale regulatory lapses-consume significant judicial time without contributing meaningfully to justice delivery. This Bill aims to:

• Reduce burden on Magistrates' Courts.
• Accelerate dispute resolution through administrative mechanisms.
• Promote ease of doing business and improve regulatory climate in the state.

Laws Likely to Be Affected

• Municipal and local governance laws.
• Factory, labour, and shop establishment-related provisions.
• Agriculture, transport, and small-scale trade regulations.
• Environmental and pollution norms involving minor procedural non-compliance.

Exam Focus:
• Purpose: reduce criminal liability & court burden.
• Nature of reform: shift to administrative penalties.
• Why it matters for docket management and ease of business.

3. Upcoming Tougher "Shakti Law" (Women's Safety Legislation)

The Maharashtra Government is preparing a revised version of the earlier "Shakti Bill," which sought to enhance protection for women and children. The previous bill was returned by the President for reconsideration due to several constitutional and procedural concerns.

Issues Highlighted by the President / Centre

• Certain procedural provisions were excessively stringent and risked violating due process rights.
• Some timelines for investigation and trial were unrealistically short and might compromise fairness of proceedings.
• Provisions on electronic evidence and punishments needed alignment with central criminal laws.

Features Proposed in the Revised Shakti Law

• Stricter punishments for sexual offences and crimes against women.
• Provisions for faster investigation and fast-track trial mechanisms.
• Better victim-protection and witness-protection measures.
• Clearer compliance with Constitution and central laws (IPC/BNS, CrPC/BNSS, POCSO).

Although the revised law is not yet enacted, its emergence is important for GK and Mains essays on women's safety reforms.

Exam Focus:
• Why the earlier bill was returned.
• What improvements are being proposed.
• Relationship with constitutional safeguards & criminal procedure.

4. Key Bombay High Court Clarification under Maharashtra Apartment Ownership Act

The Bombay High Court recently clarified that apartment associations must levy maintenance charges in a manner that is proportionate to the area of each flat. Charging all unit owners equally, regardless of size, was held to be arbitrary and inconsistent with the principles of the Apartment Ownership Act and consumer fairness.

Key Points from the Judgment

• Maintenance obligations are linked to the proportionate share in common areas.
• Larger flats bear higher maintenance because they enjoy a bigger share in common facilities.
• Equal flat-rate charges violate fairness and reasonableness.