All questions of Airport, Dock, Harbour & Tunneling Engineering for Civil Engineering (CE) Exam

Wind rose diagram is used for the purpose(s) of:

1. Runway orientation:
The wind rose diagram provides valuable information about the prevailing wind patterns at a specific location. By analyzing the wind rose diagram, engineers and planners can determine the most frequent wind directions and speeds. This information is crucial for the proper orientation of runways at airports. Runways are typically designed to align with the prevailing wind direction to ensure safe takeoff and landing operations. By aligning the runways with the prevailing winds, aircraft can take off and land with minimal crosswind component, which enhances safety and efficiency.

2. Estimating the runway capacity:
The wind rose diagram also aids in estimating the runway capacity. The capacity of a runway is influenced by wind conditions as well. Strong crosswinds can reduce the effective capacity of a runway, as they may require aircraft to use a different runway or limit the maximum allowable crosswind component for takeoffs and landings. By analyzing the wind rose diagram, airport operators can assess the impact of wind conditions on the runway capacity and make necessary adjustments to ensure efficient operations.

3. Geometric design of holding apron:
The wind rose diagram is not directly used for the geometric design of holding aprons. Holding aprons are areas where aircraft wait before taking off or after landing. The design of holding aprons takes into consideration factors such as aircraft size, taxiway width, and traffic flow patterns. While wind conditions can indirectly influence the design of holding aprons (e.g., providing adequate space for aircraft to maneuver in crosswind conditions), the wind rose diagram itself is not a primary tool for this purpose.

Therefore, the correct statement is:

d) 1 alone: The wind rose diagram is primarily used for runway orientation. It provides information about prevailing wind patterns, aiding in the proper alignment of runways with the prevailing winds.

Harbour Depth and Loaded Draft

Harbour depth is the depth of water in a harbour or port, measured at a particular point below the lowest low water level. The loaded draft is the depth of a ship below the waterline when it is fully loaded with cargo. The maximum harbour depth below the lowest low water is generally equal to the loaded draft when the ship is fully loaded.

Bottom Condition

The type of bottom in the harbour also affects the maximum depth. If the bottom is soft, the maximum depth will be less than if the bottom is rock. This is because soft bottoms are less stable and can shift or settle over time.

Answer Explanation

The correct answer is option 'D' - loaded draft 1.8m when bottom is rock. This means that if the bottom of the harbour is rock, the maximum depth below the lowest low water will be equal to the loaded draft of 1.8 meters. This is because rock bottoms provide a stable foundation for the harbour and can support greater depths than soft bottoms.

Option 'A' is incorrect because a loaded draft of 1.2m would be too shallow for a harbour depth, even with a rock bottom. Option 'B' is incorrect because a loaded draft of 1.8m would be too shallow for a soft bottom. Option 'C' is also incorrect because a loaded draft of 1.5m would be too shallow for both rock and soft bottoms.

In summary, the maximum harbour depth below the lowest low water is generally equal to the loaded draft, and it is greater when the bottom of the harbour is rock than when it is soft.

Apron as a Paved Area for Parking of Aircrafts

The correct option is 'C', which is Apron. An apron is a paved area at an airport where aircraft can be parked, loaded, unloaded, refueled, and boarded. It is located adjacent to the terminal building and usually has markings and signs to guide the pilots and ground staff.

Components of an Apron

Some of the components of an apron are:

1. Taxiways: These are the routes that connect the apron to the runway, and allow aircraft to move in and out of the airport.

2. Parking Stands: These are the designated areas where aircraft are parked. They are usually marked with numbers or letters to help the pilots and ground staff identify them.

3. Markings: The apron has markings such as lines, arrows, and symbols that indicate where aircraft should park, taxi, and turn.

4. Lighting: There may be lighting on the apron to help pilots see the markings and park safely, especially at night.

Functions of an Apron

The apron serves several important functions at an airport, including:

1. Parking of Aircraft: The apron provides a safe and designated area for aircraft to park when they are not in use.

2. Loading and Unloading of Passengers and Cargo: The apron provides a space for passengers and cargo to be loaded and unloaded from the aircraft.

3. Refueling: Aircraft can be refueled on the apron before or after a flight.

4. Boarding and Deboarding: Passengers can board and deboard the aircraft on the apron.

Conclusion

In conclusion, an apron is an essential component of an airport, providing a safe and designated area for aircraft to park, load, unload, and refuel. It is an important part of the airport infrastructure that helps to ensure safe and efficient operations.

Factors for estimating runway length for aircraft landing:

1. Normal maximum temperature:
The normal maximum temperature of the region where the airport is located is an important factor in estimating the runway length required for aircraft landing. Higher temperatures affect the air density, which in turn affects the aircraft's lift and braking performance. Higher temperatures reduce the density of air, resulting in reduced lift and longer stopping distances. Therefore, the runway length needs to be increased to compensate for the reduced performance of the aircraft in hot weather conditions.

2. Airport elevation:
The elevation of the airport is another critical factor in determining the required runway length for aircraft landing. Higher elevations result in thinner air, which reduces the aircraft's lift and performance. As the air density decreases with increasing elevation, the aircraft requires a longer runway to generate sufficient lift for takeoff and landing. Therefore, airports located at higher elevations need longer runways compared to those at lower elevations.

3. Maximum landing weight:
The maximum landing weight of the aircraft plays a significant role in estimating the runway length required for landing. The weight of the aircraft affects its landing speed, braking performance, and overall stopping distance. Heavier aircraft require longer runways to safely decelerate and come to a complete stop. The landing weight is determined by factors such as fuel load, payload, and passenger count. Therefore, the runway length needs to be sufficient to accommodate the maximum landing weight of the aircraft operating at the airport.

4. Effective runway gradient:
The effective runway gradient, or slope, is also considered when estimating the required runway length for aircraft landing. A downhill gradient can assist in reducing the required runway length by providing additional deceleration. Conversely, an uphill gradient increases the required runway length as it reduces the aircraft's braking effectiveness. The gradient of the runway, along with other factors, is taken into account to determine the overall runway length required for safe landing operations.

In conclusion, the factors that are taken into account for estimating the runway length required for aircraft landing include normal maximum temperature, airport elevation, maximum landing weight, and effective runway gradient. These factors are crucial in ensuring the safe and efficient operation of aircraft at airports.

The correct answer to the question is option 'A', which is Spring tide.

Explanation:
- What is a Spring Tide?
A spring tide is the highest and lowest tide that occurs during the lunar month. It happens when the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun align with the Earth.
- Causes of Spring Tide:
During a new moon or full moon, the Sun, Moon, and Earth are in a straight line, which causes the gravitational pull on the Earth's oceans to be at its maximum. This alignment creates a strong gravitational force, resulting in a higher high tide and a lower low tide.
- Frequency of Spring Tide:
Spring tides occur twice a month, during the new moon and full moon phases. Hence, they happen about every 14 days.
- Effects of Spring Tide:
During a spring tide, the difference between high tide and low tide is at its greatest. This can lead to more extreme changes in water levels, affecting coastal areas and navigation. It can also influence marine ecosystems and the movement of marine organisms.
- Spring Tide vs. Neap Tide:
While spring tides have the greatest difference between high and low tides, neap tides have the least difference. Neap tides occur when the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to each other, causing a weaker gravitational pull on the Earth's oceans.
- Other Tide-related Terms:
1. Neap Tide: The tide with the least difference between high and low tides.
2. Lunar Tide: Another term for the tides caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon.
3. Tidal Bore: A tidal phenomenon where the leading edge of an incoming tide forms a wave or series of waves in narrow, shallow rivers or estuaries.

In conclusion, the lowest tide that occurs in a half lunar month is called a Spring tide. This is when the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun align, causing a strong gravitational pull and resulting in a lower low tide.

Factors to Consider for Deciding the Size of the Shaft in Tunnelling

Tunnelling operations involve the construction of underground tunnels or passages for various purposes such as transportation, mining, or utility installations. One of the key considerations in tunnelling is the size of the shaft, which is the vertical access point to the tunnel. The size of the shaft is determined by several factors, including the system used for hoisting, the size of the muck car, the quantity of muck to be lifted, and the eventual use of the shaft. Let's discuss each factor in detail:

1. System used for hoisting:
The choice of hoisting system plays a crucial role in determining the size of the shaft. Different hoisting systems have different space requirements and load capacities. For example, if a large-scale hoisting system such as a double-drum friction hoist is used, it may require a larger shaft to accommodate the equipment and ensure safe and efficient operation.

2. Size of the muck car:
The muck car is used to transport the excavated material or muck from the tunnel face to the surface. The size and capacity of the muck car influence the size of the shaft. A larger muck car may require a larger shaft to allow for smooth loading and unloading operations. Additionally, the size of the muck car also affects the overall productivity of the tunnelling operation.

3. Quantity of muck to be lifted:
The volume and weight of the muck to be lifted from the tunnel to the surface impact the size of the shaft. If a large quantity of muck is generated during tunnelling, a larger shaft with increased capacity may be required to handle the muck efficiently. The size of the shaft should be able to accommodate the expected muck flow rate and prevent any congestion or delays in the hoisting process.

4. Eventual use of the shaft:
The eventual use of the shaft also influences its size. If the shaft is intended for future use, such as for ventilation, emergency access, or for the installation of additional utilities, a larger size may be required. It is important to consider the long-term requirements of the shaft to avoid the need for costly modifications or expansions in the future.

In conclusion, when deciding the size of the shaft in tunnelling, factors such as the hoisting system, size of the muck car, quantity of muck to be lifted, and eventual use of the shaft need to be considered. These factors ensure the safe and efficient operation of the tunnelling project and cater to the specific requirements of the project.

Size and type of ship served
- The size and type of ship served is an important factor in determining the spaces required alongside a wharf for berthing. Different ships have different dimensions and requirements for berthing. Larger ships will require more space alongside the wharf to safely berth and maneuver. Similarly, different types of ships, such as container ships, bulk carriers, or oil tankers, will have specific requirements for berthing based on their design and cargo handling capabilities. Therefore, the size and type of ship served by the wharf will directly influence the spaces required for berthing.

Availability of materials
- The availability of materials is another factor that can influence the spaces required alongside a wharf for berthing. The construction and maintenance of a wharf require various materials, such as concrete, steel, timber, and fenders. The availability of these materials will determine the design and dimensions of the wharf, including the spaces required for berthing. If certain materials are scarce or limited, it may affect the construction or expansion of the wharf, which in turn can impact the spaces available for berthing.

Wharf configuration
- The configuration of the wharf is an essential factor in determining the spaces required for berthing. The layout and design of the wharf, including the number and arrangement of berths, will influence the spaces available for ships to dock. Wharves can have different configurations, such as a linear layout with multiple parallel berths or a T-shaped layout with perpendicular berths. The configuration will depend on factors such as the available space, water depth, and tidal conditions. The specific configuration will directly impact the spaces required for berthing.

Mooring procedures
- The mooring procedures are another factor that can influence the spaces required alongside a wharf for berthing. Different ships have different mooring requirements based on their size, type, and cargo handling capabilities. The mooring procedures involve securing the ship to the wharf using ropes, cables, or bollards. The spaces required for berthing will depend on the number and configuration of the mooring points along the wharf, as well as the specific mooring procedures followed. Proper mooring is essential for the safe and efficient berthing of ships, and the spaces required will be determined by these procedures.

In conclusion, the spaces required alongside a wharf for berthing depend on factors such as the size and type of ship served, the availability of materials, the wharf configuration, and the mooring procedures. All of these factors are interrelated and will influence the design and dimensions of the wharf, including the spaces available for berthing. Therefore, the correct answer is option 'C' - 1, 2, and 3.

It's (b) 3 2 1 4

°C, the runway length required for a standard day (15°C) and a landing weight of 50,000 kg is:

- Determine the pressure altitude:

Pressure altitude = (1 - (ISA lapse rate x elevation above sea level/temperature at sea level)) x 1013.25
ISA lapse rate = -0.0065 K/m
Temperature at sea level = 15 + 273.15 = 288.15 K
Pressure altitude = (1 - (-0.0065 x 1000/288.15)) x 1013.25
Pressure altitude = 913.27 hPa

- Corrected airport altitude:

Corrected airport altitude = airport elevation + (pressure altitude - 1013.25)/30
Corrected airport altitude = 1000 + (913.27 - 1013.25)/30
Corrected airport altitude = 953.17 m

- Temperature correction:

Temperature correction factor = 1 + 0.0008 x (airport reference temperature - ISA temperature)
ISA temperature = 15 + 273.15 = 288.15 K
Temperature correction factor = 1 + 0.0008 x (16 - 15)
Temperature correction factor = 1.0008

- Calculate air density:

Air density = (pressure altitude/temperature)^1.225 x temperature correction factor
Air density = (913.27/289.15)^1.225 x 1.0008
Air density = 1.109 kg/m3

- Determine the takeoff distance:

Takeoff distance = (V2 + 10) x V2/(2 x g x (T/W)/(CLmax x Air density x S))
V2 = 1.2 x Vstall
Vstall = √(2 x W/(CLmax x Air density x S))
Assume CLmax = 1.5
Assume S = 100 m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
T/W = 0.2 (from aircraft performance charts)

Vstall = √(2 x 50000/(1.5 x 1.109 x 100))
Vstall = 33.39 m/s

V2 = 1.2 x 33.39
V2 = 40.07 m/s

Takeoff distance = (40.07 + 10) x 40.07/(2 x 9.81 x 0.2/(1.5 x 1.109 x 100))
Takeoff distance = 2424.71 m

Therefore, the runway length required for a standard day and a landing weight of 50,000 kg is approximately 2424.71 m.

Advantage of the Heading and Benching Method of Tunnel Construction:

Advantage in Unstable Rocks:
- The heading and benching method is considered advantageous for construction in unstable rocks.
- This method provides better stability and support in challenging geological conditions.
- The systematic excavation process helps in managing the ground conditions effectively, reducing the risk of collapses and other hazards.

In this method, it is easy to install timber support:
- The heading and benching method allows for the installation of timber support systems easily.
- Timber supports are commonly used in tunnel construction to provide temporary or permanent reinforcement to the tunnel walls.
- The ability to install timber supports efficiently can enhance the safety and stability of the tunneling operations.

Tunnelling can be continuous and work can be expedited:
- One of the key advantages of the heading and benching method is that it allows for continuous tunneling.
- The systematic approach of excavating the heading and benching sections enables a smooth workflow and expedited construction progress.
- Continuous tunneling helps in saving time and resources, making the overall construction process more efficient.

Overall, the heading and benching method offers several advantages, including enhanced stability in unstable rocks, ease of installing timber support, and the ability to expedite tunneling operations.

Explanation:

As the elevation increases, the density of air decreases, which affects the lift generated by the wings of the aircraft. Therefore, to compensate for this decrease in lift, the runway length has to be increased.

The rate at which the runway length has to be increased with the rise in elevation above mean sea level (MSL) is given by the following formula:

Rate of increase in runway length = (Percentage increase in runway length per 300 m rise in elevation above MSL) * (Elevation above MSL/300)

Option 'B' states that the runway length has to be increased at a rate of 7% per 300 m rise in elevation above MSL. This means that for every 300 m increase in elevation above MSL, the runway length has to be increased by 7%.

For example, if the elevation of the airport is 900 m above MSL, the rate of increase in runway length would be:

Rate of increase in runway length = 0.07 * (900/300) = 0.21 or 21%

This means that the runway length has to be increased by 21% for an airport located at an elevation of 900 m above MSL.

Therefore, option 'B' is the correct answer.

Explanation:

A ship is berthed in a chamber and lifted by principles of buoyancy. This chamber is known as a Floating Dock.

Definition of a Floating Dock:
A floating dock is a structure that is capable of being submerged and raised in water to lift and support ships for repair, maintenance, or construction. It consists of a watertight chamber or platform that can be flooded with water to allow a ship to float in, and then be raised by reducing the water level to lift the ship out of the water.

Working of a Floating Dock:
A floating dock works on the principle of buoyancy. When the chamber of the dock is flooded with water, the dock submerges and the ship is floated into it. Once the ship is in position, the water is pumped out of the chamber, reducing the overall weight of the dock and causing it to rise. As the dock rises, it lifts the ship out of the water, allowing access to the hull for repairs, painting, cleaning, or any other required work.

Advantages of a Floating Dock:
1. Flexibility: Floating docks can be used in different locations and can be easily moved to accommodate different ship sizes and types.
2. Accessibility: By lifting the ship out of the water, a floating dock provides easy access to the entire hull, allowing for thorough inspections and repairs.
3. Cost-effective: Floating docks eliminate the need for dry docking facilities, which can be expensive to construct and maintain.
4. Reduced downtime: Ships can be serviced and repaired quickly in a floating dock, minimizing the time they spend out of operation.
5. Environmental benefits: Floating docks have a minimal impact on the environment as they do not require extensive excavation or construction on land.

Conclusion:
A floating dock is a versatile and efficient facility for lifting and supporting ships. It provides a cost-effective solution for ship maintenance and repair, allowing easy access to the hull while minimizing downtime.

The orientation of preferential runway in an airport is an important aspect that ensures safe landing and takeoff of aircraft. The orientation is influenced by several factors, which are explained below:

1. Direction of prevailing wind: The runway should be oriented in the direction of the prevailing wind to minimize the crosswind component during landing and takeoff. This ensures that the aircraft can maintain its intended path and reduces the risk of accidents.

2. Adequate length: The runway should be long enough to accommodate the largest aircraft that will use the airport. The length of the runway is determined by the performance characteristics of the aircraft and the type of operations that will take place at the airport.

3. Obstruction-free landing and takeoff zones: The landing and takeoff zones should be free from any obstacles that could interfere with the safe operation of the aircraft. Obstacles such as buildings, trees, and power lines can pose a serious risk to aircraft safety.

4. Stable ground and adequate turning space: The ground on which the runway is constructed should be stable and able to support the weight of the aircraft. In addition, the runway should have adequate turning space at the ends to allow aircraft to safely turn around.

In summary, the orientation of preferential runway in an airport is influenced by the direction of prevailing wind, adequate length, obstruction-free landing and takeoff zones, and stable ground and adequate turning space. These factors ensure that aircraft can operate safely and efficiently at the airport.

Shield for Tunneling

A shield is an essential component used in tunneling operations to protect workers and machinery from the surrounding soil or rock. It provides stability and safety during the construction of tunnels. The shield consists of various components, each serving a specific purpose. Among the given options, the cutting edge is a component of a shield for tunneling.

1. Cutting Edge:
The cutting edge is a crucial part of the shield that is responsible for excavating the soil or rock in front of the shield. It is typically made of hardened steel and is designed to withstand the forces exerted during the excavation process. The cutting edge is usually shaped in the form of a blade or a disc, depending on the type of shield being used. It is placed at the front of the shield and helps in breaking and loosening the soil or rock, allowing for easier removal.

Other Components of a Shield:

a) Liner Plate:
A liner plate is another component of a shield, but it is not directly related to the shield's function in tunneling. Liner plates are used to provide structural support to the tunnel lining. They are installed after the excavation is complete to prevent the collapse of the tunnel walls. Liner plates are typically made of steel and are bolted or welded together to form a continuous lining.

b) Trench Jack:
A trench jack, also known as a trench strut or a shoring prop, is a device used to support excavations or trenches. It is not specifically related to tunneling operations and is used in open-cut excavations. Trench jacks are adjustable and can be extended or retracted to provide support to the sides of an excavation. They help prevent soil collapse and ensure the safety of workers within the trench.

c) Stiffener:
A stiffener is a structural component used to increase the rigidity and strength of a shield. It is typically made of steel and is attached to the shield's frame or structure. Stiffeners help distribute the loads and forces exerted during tunneling, enhancing the shield's overall stability. They are strategically placed throughout the shield to provide optimal reinforcement.

In conclusion, the cutting edge is the component of a shield for tunneling that is responsible for excavating the soil or rock. The other options given, such as liner plate, trench jack, and stiffener, are also important components used in construction but are not directly related to the functioning of a shield in tunneling operations.

Maximum Effective Gradients of Runway for D and E Type of Airport

The maximum effective gradients of a runway for D and E type of airports are important factors to consider for safe takeoff and landing operations.

Effective Gradient

- The effective gradient of a runway is the maximum allowable slope that ensures safe operations of aircraft during takeoff and landing.
- It is crucial to maintain a suitable gradient to prevent any issues related to aircraft performance and safety.

Maximum Effective Gradient

- For D and E type airports, the maximum effective gradient is typically set at 2%.
- This gradient allows for safe operations of various types of aircraft, including larger commercial planes.
- A gradient higher than 2% can pose challenges for aircraft during takeoff and landing, affecting their performance and safety.

Importance of Maximum Effective Gradient

- Adhering to the maximum effective gradient ensures that aircraft can safely accelerate and decelerate on the runway.
- It also helps in preventing issues such as tail strikes, aircraft instability, and runway excursions.
- Maintaining the correct gradient is crucial for the overall safety and efficiency of airport operations.

In conclusion, the maximum effective gradient of 2% for D and E type airports is essential for ensuring the safe and efficient movement of aircraft during takeoff and landing. It is a key factor in maintaining the overall safety standards of airport operations.

Calculation of Rate of Change of Longitudinal Gradient:

To calculate the rate of change of longitudinal gradient for a 30m vertical curve at a D and E type airport, we can use the formula:

Rate of Change of Gradient = (Change in Gradient / Length of Vertical Curve) x 100

Determination of Change in Gradient:
- The change in gradient for a 30m vertical curve is the difference between the initial and final gradients.
- For D and E type airports, the change in gradient is typically around 1.2%.

Calculation:
- Length of Vertical Curve = 30m
- Change in Gradient = 1.2%
- Rate of Change of Gradient = (1.2 / 30) x 100 = 1.2%

Therefore, the correct rate of change of longitudinal gradient for a 30m vertical curve at a D and E type airport is 1.2%.

Explanation:
Dry docks are specialized structures used for the construction, maintenance, and repair of ships. They are designed to allow a ship to be brought in and then drained of water so that work can be carried out on the hull and other parts of the vessel. The loading conditions for dry docks are different from those for other types of structures, as they have to support the weight of both the ship and the water in the dock.

The condition of loading that imposes the greatest load on the foundation is when the dock is empty. This may seem counterintuitive, as one might expect that the weight of the ship and the water combined would be greater than the weight of the dock alone. However, there are several factors that contribute to this situation:

- Weight of the dock: The dry dock itself is a substantial structure, often made of reinforced concrete or steel. Depending on its size and construction, it can weigh hundreds or thousands of tons. When the dock is empty, all of this weight is supported by the foundation.
- Differential settlement: When the dock is filled with water, the weight is distributed evenly over the entire surface area of the dock. However, when the dock is empty, the weight is concentrated at certain points. This can lead to differential settlement, where some parts of the foundation sink more than others. This can cause cracking and other damage to the dock and the ships that use it.
- Vibrations: When a ship is in the dock, it acts as a damping mechanism, absorbing the energy of any vibrations that might be present. However, when the dock is empty, any vibrations from nearby sources (such as heavy machinery or construction work) can be transmitted directly to the foundation. This can cause damage over time.

In conclusion, the condition of loading that imposes the greatest load on the foundation in the case of dry docks is when the dock is empty. The weight of the dock itself, the potential for differential settlement, and the risk of damage from vibrations all contribute to this situation.

The best direction of a runway is option a) Along the longest line on the windrose diagram.

The windrose diagram provides information about prevailing wind patterns and directions at a specific location. By aligning the runway along the longest line on the windrose diagram, the aircraft can take off and land into the wind, which is beneficial for several reasons:

1. Safety: Landing and taking off into the wind increases the aircraft's lift and reduces the groundspeed, allowing for a safer and shorter takeoff and landing distance.

2. Control: The headwind created by landing and taking off into the wind provides better control and maneuverability for the aircraft.

3. Reduced runway length: Taking off with a headwind allows the aircraft to achieve lift at a lower groundspeed, which can reduce the required runway length.

4. Reduced landing speed: Landing into the wind reduces the groundspeed, which can result in a lower touchdown speed, enhancing safety.

Overall, aligning the runway along the longest line on the windrose diagram ensures optimal safety, control, and efficiency for aircraft operations.

Correction Percentage for Runway Length Calculation

When calculating the required runway length, several factors need to be considered, including the aircraft's weight, speed, and environmental conditions. Therefore, the basic runway length may need to be adjusted to account for these factors. The correction percentage for altitude and temperature is one such adjustment.

Altitude Correction

At higher altitudes, the air is thinner, and the aircraft requires a longer distance to take off and land. Therefore, the required runway length needs to be increased to account for the altitude. The altitude correction percentage is calculated using the following formula:

Altitude correction percentage = (altitude in feet / 1000) x 1.5

For example, if the airport's altitude is 5000 feet, the altitude correction percentage would be:

(5000 / 1000) x 1.5 = 7.5%

Temperature Correction

Temperature also affects the aircraft's performance, as it affects the air density. In hot temperatures, the air is less dense, and the aircraft requires a longer distance to take off and land. Therefore, the required runway length needs to be increased to account for the temperature. The temperature correction percentage is calculated using the following formula:

Temperature correction percentage = (temperature in degrees Celsius - 15) x 0.2

For example, if the temperature is 30 degrees Celsius, the temperature correction percentage would be:

(30 - 15) x 0.2 = 3%

Total Correction Percentage

The total correction percentage is the sum of the altitude correction percentage and the temperature correction percentage. Therefore, the maximum total correction percentage for altitude and temperature is:

Altitude correction percentage + Temperature correction percentage = 7.5% + 3% = 10.5%

However, it is important to note that there may be other factors that need to be considered when calculating the required runway length, such as wind direction and slope. Therefore, the total correction percentage may vary depending on the specific circumstances.

Basic Runway Length Required for an Aircraft

In deciding the basic runway length required for an aircraft, several factors need to be taken into consideration. These factors include the type of aircraft, its weight, the environmental conditions, and the specific operations that the aircraft will perform. Among the given aircraft operations, the following are taken into consideration:

1. Normal landing: The runway length required for a normal landing is an important factor in determining the overall runway length. During a normal landing, the aircraft descends and touches down on the runway, gradually decelerating until it comes to a complete stop. The length required for this operation depends on the aircraft type, its approach speed, and the touchdown zone elevation.

2. Normal takeoff with all engines: The takeoff distance is another crucial factor in determining the basic runway length required for an aircraft. During a normal takeoff, the aircraft accelerates along the runway, reaches a certain speed (known as the rotation speed), and then lifts off the ground. The takeoff distance depends on the aircraft's weight, the thrust of its engines, and the runway conditions.

3. Engine failure at takeoff: In the event of an engine failure during takeoff, the aircraft needs to be able to safely abort the takeoff and come to a stop within a specified distance. This distance, known as the accelerate-stop distance, is considered when determining the basic runway length required for an aircraft. It takes into account the time required for the pilot to recognize the engine failure, apply the brakes, and bring the aircraft to a halt.

Therefore, the correct answer is option 'A' (1, 2, and 3). The normal landing, normal takeoff with all engines, and engine failure at takeoff are all significant operations that influence the basic runway length required for an aircraft. The emergency landing with all engines shut and landing with maximum payload with the help of ILS are not directly considered in determining the basic runway length. However, these operations may have specific requirements or considerations that need to be addressed during the design and planning of the runway.

Calculation of Turning Radius:

- Given parameters:
- Wheel base (WB) = 30m
- Tread of main loading gear (T) = 6m
- Design turning speed = 50 kmph
- Width of taxiway pavement (W) = 22.5m
- Coefficient of friction (μ) = 0.13

Horonjeff equation:
\[ R = \frac{WB}{2} + \frac{W^2}{8T} + \frac{T}{2} \]

Calculation:
- Substitute the given values into the equation:
\[ R = \frac{30}{2} + \frac{22.5^2}{8*6} + \frac{6}{2} \]
\[ R = 15 + \frac{506.25}{48} + 3 \]
\[ R = 15 + 10.53125 + 3 \]
\[ R = 28.53125 \approx 28.5m \]

- Convert the design turning speed from kmph to m/s:
\[ 50 km/hr = \frac{50*1000}{3600} m/s \approx 13.89 m/s \]

- Calculate the turning radius using the formula:
\[ Radius = \frac{V^2}{g \cdot μ} \]
\[ R = \frac{13.89^2}{9.81 \times 0.13} \]
\[ R = \frac{192.9721}{1.2733} \approx 151.61m \]

Therefore, the turning radius of the taxiway for an aircraft with a wheel base of 30m is approximately 151.61m, which is closest to option B (155.5m).

Minimum Width of Safety Area for Instrumental Runway

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), safety area is a defined area on the ground beyond the runway strip designed to reduce the risk of damage to airplanes in the event of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the runway. The minimum width of safety area for instrumental runway should be:

- Option A: 78 m
- Option B: 150 m (Correct Answer)
- Option C: 300 m
- Option D: 450 m

Explanation

The safety area is an essential component of the runway system that serves as a buffer zone and provides additional space for errant aircraft to decelerate or stop safely. The width of the safety area is determined by the length of the runway and the approach speed of the aircraft. The recommended minimum width of the safety area for an instrumental runway is 150 meters, according to ICAO guidelines.

The width of the safety area can vary depending on the type of runway, the location of the airport, and the type of aircraft that use the airport. For example, airports with runways that are used by large commercial planes may require wider safety areas than smaller airports that serve smaller planes.

In addition to the width of the safety area, other factors such as surface conditions, slope, and drainage must also be considered to ensure that the safety area meets the necessary standards. The safety area must be constructed of materials that can support the weight of aircraft and must be able to withstand environmental stresses such as extreme weather conditions.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the minimum width of the safety area for an instrumental runway is 150 meters according to ICAO recommendations. The safety area is an essential component of the runway system that provides additional space for errant aircraft to decelerate or stop safely, reducing the risk of damage to the plane and the passengers. It is important to ensure that the safety area meets the necessary standards to ensure the safety of aircraft and passengers.

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Basic Runway Length for Landing

To determine the basic runway length required for landing, the aircraft should be able to come to a stop within a certain percentage of the landing distance. This percentage, denoted as p, is a crucial factor in assessing the safety and feasibility of landing operations.

Understanding the Value of p

The value of p represents the proportion of the landing distance within which an aircraft should be able to come to a stop. This value is determined based on various factors, including the type of aircraft, its landing speed, and the prevailing weather conditions. The higher the value of p, the greater the distance an aircraft is required to come to a stop within.

Significance of Determining p

Determining the value of p is critical for aviation safety. It ensures that the runway length is sufficient for an aircraft to safely decelerate and come to a stop without overshooting the runway. If the value of p is too low, it could pose a serious risk of runway excursions, which can result in accidents and fatalities.

Correct Answer and Explanation

According to the question, the correct answer is option 'C,' which states that the value of p is 60%. This means that an aircraft should be able to come to a stop within 60% of the landing distance.

The choice of 60% as the value of p is based on industry standards and regulations, which consider factors such as aircraft performance, braking capabilities, and safety margins. A value of 60% allows for a reasonable stopping distance, considering a range of aircraft types and operating conditions.

By setting p at 60%, it ensures that the runway length is adequate to accommodate the deceleration requirements of most aircraft during landing. This value strikes a balance between safety and efficiency, allowing for the smooth operation of landing procedures while maintaining a sufficient safety margin.

It is important to note that the value of p may vary in certain situations, such as during adverse weather conditions or when dealing with specific aircraft types. However, in the context of determining the basic runway length, a value of 60% is generally accepted as a standard guideline.

In conclusion, the correct answer to the question is option 'C' - 60%. This value ensures that an aircraft can come to a stop within 60% of the landing distance, providing a reasonable safety margin for landing operations.

Maximum Permissible Longitudinal Gradient for Airport Type D and E:

The maximum permissible longitudinal gradient for airstrips for Airport Type D and E is 3.0%. This gradient limit is set to ensure the safe landing and takeoff of aircraft on the runway.

Importance of Maximum Gradient:

- The gradient of the airstrip plays a crucial role in the safe operation of aircraft.
- A steep gradient can affect the performance of aircraft during takeoff and landing.
- Exceeding the maximum permissible gradient can lead to safety hazards and operational challenges for pilots.

Reason for 3.0% Gradient Limit:

- Airport Type D and E are typically larger airports with heavier aircraft operations.
- The higher gradient limit of 3.0% allows for the safe operation of larger aircraft with greater weight and performance requirements.
- This limit ensures that aircraft can safely land and take off without encountering excessive slopes that can impact their performance.

Compliance with Regulations:

- It is essential for airport authorities and engineers to adhere to the maximum gradient limit specified for Airport Type D and E.
- Compliance with this regulation ensures the safety of passengers, crew, and aircraft during operations.
- Regular monitoring and maintenance of the airstrip gradient are necessary to ensure compliance with the set limit.

In conclusion, the maximum permissible longitudinal gradient for airstrips for Airport Type D and E is set at 3.0% to ensure safe operations of larger aircraft at these airports. Adhering to this limit is crucial for maintaining safety standards and operational efficiency in the aviation industry.