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All questions of Motivation and Emotion for Humanities/Arts Exam

Which one of the following statements about behaviour and emotion do we know to be FALSE? 
  • a)
    Emotion has behavioural aspects. 
  • b)
    An angry conversation takes a different course from a calm conversation. 
  • c)
    You can see emotional behaviour in the facial expressions of other people. 
  • d)
    Emotion fails to prepare us for action.
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?

Sarthak Joshi answered
Understanding Emotion and Behaviour
Emotions play a crucial role in guiding our behaviours and reactions. The statement that "emotion fails to prepare us for action" is indeed false. Here’s why:
Role of Emotion in Behaviour
- Emotions are integral to our decision-making and actions. They help us assess situations quickly and respond appropriately.
- For instance, fear can trigger a fight-or-flight response, prompting immediate actions to ensure survival.
Behavioural Aspects of Emotion
- Emotions have distinct behavioural aspects. Our emotional states can influence how we communicate and interact with others.
- An angry conversation, for example, is likely to escalate due to heightened emotional responses, while a calm conversation promotes understanding.
Non-Verbal Cues
- Emotional behaviour is often reflected in facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice.
- Recognizing these cues enables individuals to empathize and respond effectively to others' emotions.
Conclusion
- Therefore, the statement that "emotion fails to prepare us for action" is incorrect. Emotions are essential in shaping our behaviours and guiding our responses to various situations. They are not merely feelings but are intertwined with our actions and interactions in everyday life.
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Some research suggests that women are more receptive to external sensory stimuli when they are what? 
  • a)
    Most tired 
  • b)
    Least hungry 
  • c)
    Least fertile 
  • d)
    Most hungry 
  • e)
    Most fertile
Correct answer is option 'E'. Can you explain this answer?

Varun Datta answered
Introduction:
Research suggests that women are more receptive to external sensory stimuli when they are most fertile. This finding has significant implications for understanding female behavior and the influence of reproductive hormones on sensory processing.

Explanation:
1. Female Sensory Processing:
Research has shown that women exhibit heightened sensitivity to external sensory stimuli at different stages of their menstrual cycle. This sensitivity is believed to be influenced by fluctuating levels of reproductive hormones, such as estrogen and progesterone.

2. Menstrual Cycle Phases:
The menstrual cycle can be divided into different phases, including the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase. During the follicular phase, estrogen levels gradually increase, leading to the development of the ovarian follicles. Ovulation occurs when the mature egg is released from the ovary. In the luteal phase, progesterone levels rise in preparation for potential pregnancy.

3. Heightened Sensitivity During Ovulation:
Several studies have found that women experience increased sensory sensitivity during the ovulation phase of their menstrual cycle. This heightened sensitivity may be an evolutionary adaptation to enhance the chances of successful reproduction. During ovulation, women are most fertile and more likely to engage in sexual activities. Increased sensory sensitivity may help women detect potential mates and increase their receptiveness to external stimuli.

4. Enhanced Social Perception:
One aspect of heightened sensory processing during ovulation is enhanced social perception. Women in the ovulation phase may be more attuned to social cues, such as facial expressions and body language, which can facilitate mate selection. This heightened social perception may also extend to other sensory modalities, such as auditory and olfactory cues.

5. Evolutionary Significance:
The increased receptiveness to external sensory stimuli during ovulation aligns with evolutionary theories. By being more sensitive to external stimuli during the most fertile phase of their menstrual cycle, women may have a greater chance of successfully reproducing. This heightened sensitivity may help women make more informed decisions regarding mate selection and increase their reproductive success.

Conclusion:
Research suggests that women are more receptive to external sensory stimuli when they are most fertile, specifically during the ovulation phase of their menstrual cycle. This heightened sensitivity may be an evolutionary adaptation to enhance reproductive success. Understanding the influence of reproductive hormones on sensory processing can provide valuable insights into female behavior and the factors that shape it.

Which of the following statements about thirst is UNTRUE? 
  • a)
    When our bodies lose too much water, we feel thirsty. 
  • b)
    When we eat foods rich in salt, we feel thirsty. 
  • c)
    Cellular dehydration is sensed peripherally in the body. 
  • d)
    The part of the brain that senses cellular dehydration is between the preoptic area and the hypothalamus.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
When our bodies lose too much water, or we eat foods rich in salt, we feel thirsty, apparently because of cellular dehydration, leading to cell shrinkage. Cellular dehydration is sensed centrally in the brain, rather than peripherally in the body. The part of the brain that senses cellular dehydration appears to be near or in a region extending from the preoptic area through the hypothalamus.

Identify the INCORRECT statement about cognition and emotion from those given below: 
  • a)
    Lazarus believes that an event must be understood before emotion can follow. 
  • b)
    Zajonc argues that cognition and emotion are independent, with emotion even preceding cognition in some cases. 
  • c)
    Conscious thought is involved in all rapid emotional reactions. 
  • d)
    The reflex system is primitive and very much centred on the ‘now’, whereas what might be termed ‘real’ emotion also involves the past and the future.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
The question that remains is whether cognition, and in particular cognitive appraisal, is necessary for the perception of emotion. If someone lacks the cognitive capacity to make a particular appraisal of an event, can they experience the emotion that is normally associated with that event? Lazarus (e.g. 1982, 1984, 1991, 1993) has added greatly to our understanding of emotion and coping processes.
He believes that an event must be understood before emotion can follow. On the other hand, Zajonc (e.g. 1980, 1984) argues that cognition and emotion are independent, with emotion even preceding cognition in some cases. The debate about whether cognition necessarily precedes or follows emotion turns on the definition of cognition (see Buck, 1991; Ellsworth, 1991). It is clear that conscious thought is not involved in some rapid emotional reactions. A sudden screech of brakes tends to produce an unthinking, uncontrolled emotional reaction.
But it can also be argued that some appraisals might also occur unconsciously and immediately. If such appraisals are cognitions, then all emotion is preceded by and involves cognition. The alternative is that some emotions involve cognition and others do not. Perhaps this is an arid debate. In everyday life the interplay between emotion and cognition is very intricate. There is a huge difference between the internal lurch you would feel at a sudden loud noise in the middle of the night and the combination of thoughts and feelings you would experience if this turned out to be the precursor to your house going up in flames.
In other words, a simple, immediate reflex action that might send a burst of adrenaline through the system is very different from the complexities of emotional reaction when the cortex is involved and specific hopes, fears, memories and expectations are implicated. The reflex system is primitive and very much centred on the ‘now’, whereas what might be termed ‘real’ emotion also involves the past and the future (through appraisals).

Which of the following definitions of key terms in motivation is INCORRECT? 
  • a)
    A reward is something an animal will work to obtain or achieve. 
  • b)
    A punishment is something an animal will work to escape or avoid. 
  • c)
    A voluntary behaviour is also called a Pavlovian response. 
  • d)
    The term ‘work’ refers to a voluntary behaviour.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Anmol Rane answered
Understanding the Incorrect Definition
The statement "A voluntary behaviour is also called a Pavlovian response" is incorrect. Here's why:
Voluntary Behavior vs. Pavlovian Response
- Voluntary Behavior:
- Refers to actions that are under conscious control and are typically goal-directed.
- Examples include deciding to eat, studying for an exam, or exercising.
- Pavlovian Response:
- Also known as classical conditioning, involves automatic or reflexive responses to certain stimuli.
- This was famously demonstrated in Pavlov's experiments with dogs, where they salivated in response to a bell associated with food.
Key Differences
- Nature of Response:
- Voluntary behaviors are intentional and can be influenced by thoughts and decisions.
- Pavlovian responses are involuntary and occur without conscious thought, triggered by a learned association.
- Learning Mechanism:
- Voluntary behaviors are often shaped by operant conditioning, where consequences influence the likelihood of the behavior's occurrence.
- Pavlovian responses rely on associative learning, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a reflexive response.
Conclusion
The incorrect definition conflates two distinct concepts in the study of motivation and behavior. Understanding these differences is crucial for a comprehensive grasp of psychological theories related to behavior.

Highlight the correct statement regarding implicit psychological theories: 
  • a)
    A minority of people hold implicit psychological theories. 
  • b)
    Implicit psychological theories are constructed from the findings of scientific studies. 
  • c)
    An example of an implicit psychological theory is as follows: we might believe that it is important to express emotion, because if it is bottled up it will eventually break out in ways that could cause discomfort or even be injurious to health. 
  • d)
    The study of ‘lay’ theories and how they map onto theories of academic or professional psychologists is still an insignificant aspect of psychology.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
We all hold implicit psychological theories, constructed from everyday, commonsense observations and thoughts. For example, we might well believe that it is important to express emotion, because if it is bottled up it will eventually break out in ways that could cause discomfort or even be injurious to health. The study of such ‘lay’ theories and how they map onto theories of academic or professional psychologists has become important in its own right.

Experiments with rats, monkeys and humans using sham feeding have advanced our knowledge about food intake by demonstrating that: 
  • a)
    Satiety and reward signals are necessary to control eating 
  • b)
    Taste and smell stop food-seeking 
  • c)
    Gastric distension is caused by sham feeding 
  • d)
    Satiety motivates food-seeking behaviour 
  • e)
    Satiety and reward signals are not necessary to control eating
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
Sham feeding has demonstrated that taste and smell bring immediate rewards for food-motivated behaviour, but do not provide fullness; thus actual eating is necessary to produce feeling of fullness (satiety) and regulate the ceasing of food intake. Taste and smell motivate, not stop, food-seeking. Gastric distension is caused by actual eating. Satiety inhibits further food-seeking behaviour.

Which of the following statements regarding Schachter is FALSE? 
  • a)
    Schachter’s (1970) general conclusions from his research were that there is little physiological differentiation between the emotions, the labelling of emotional states being largely a cognitive matter. 
  • b)
    Even though both Schachter’s ideas and his studies have been influential, they have also been criticized. 
  • c)
    Critics have argued that Schachter proved that emotion depends on physiological arousal and cognition. 
  • d)
    Leventhal (1974) has argued that Schachter has never shown exactly how arousal and cognition combine in emotion, particularly in children.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
In their ingenious (1962) experiment, Schachter and Singer were convinced that they had supported Schachter’s three propositions by manipulating cognition and arousal. Schachter’s (1970) general conclusions were that there is little physiological differentiation between the emotions, the labelling of emotional states being largely a cognitive matter. Even though both Schachter’s ideas and his studies have been influential, they have also been criticized.
To take one example, Schachter did not prove that emotion depends on physiological arousal and cognition. Leventhal goes further, arguing that Schachter has never shown exactly how arousal and cognition combine in emotion, particularly in children. From a Schachterian perspective, how would a young child be able to feel any emotion before knowing the linguistic label for that feeling?

Which of these statements is correct, regarding how damage to the brain affects eating? 
  • a)
    Since the early twentieth century, we have known that damage to the base of the brain can influence food intake and body weight. 
  • b)
    One critical region regulating food intake and body weight is the ventromedial amygdala. 
  • c)
    Damage to both sides of the ventromedial hypothalamus can lead to anorexia. 
  • d)
    Damage to both sides of the lateral hypothalamus can lead to obesity.
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Ishani Gupta answered
Damage to the Brain and Eating Behavior
Damage to the base of the brain has been known to influence food intake and body weight since the early twentieth century. This is due to the critical role that various brain regions play in regulating eating behavior.

Ventromedial Amygdala
The ventromedial amygdala is one of the critical regions that regulate food intake and body weight. Damage to this region can lead to dysregulation of eating behavior, potentially causing changes in appetite and weight.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Damage to both sides of the ventromedial hypothalamus can indeed lead to anorexia. This region is involved in the regulation of hunger and satiety, and damage can disrupt these processes, leading to a decrease in food intake.

Lateral Hypothalamus
On the other hand, damage to both sides of the lateral hypothalamus can lead to obesity. The lateral hypothalamus is involved in the regulation of hunger and feeding behavior, and damage can disrupt these processes, resulting in an increase in food intake and potential weight gain.
In conclusion, damage to different regions of the brain can have varying effects on eating behavior, influencing food intake and body weight in different ways. Understanding these relationships is crucial in managing eating disorders and maintaining overall health.

Read the following scenario: Your face is red during an angry conversation with your mother in which she criticized your new partner. Which of the following aspects of emotion are involved in this scenario? 
  • a)
    Arousal, feeling, social, cognitive and behavioural 
  • b)
    Arousal, feeling and social 
  • c)
    Feeling, social, behavioural and value 
  • d)
    Feeling 
  • e)
    None of the above
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Kajal Singh answered
Understanding Emotions in the Scenario
In the scenario presented, several aspects of emotion are at play, making option 'A' the correct choice. Let's break down the components involved:
Arousal
- Arousal refers to the physiological response that occurs during emotional experiences.
- Your face turning red is a physical indicator of heightened arousal, often associated with anger.
Feeling
- Feelings are the subjective experience of emotions.
- In this case, you are experiencing feelings of anger due to your mother’s criticism of your partner.
Social
- Emotions are often influenced by social dynamics and interactions.
- This scenario highlights the social context of a conversation with your mother, where family relationships and opinions play a significant role.
Cognitive
- Cognitive aspects involve the interpretation and evaluation of emotional situations.
- In this case, your thoughts about your partner and your mother’s criticism contribute to the emotional response, but this aspect is less emphasized in the context of the answer.
Behavioral
- Behavioral aspects refer to how emotions influence actions or reactions.
- While anger may lead to certain behaviors such as raising your voice or defending your partner, these are not highlighted in this scenario’s interpretation.
In conclusion, option 'A' encompasses the comprehensive nature of emotional experiences by including arousal, feelings, social context, cognitive appraisal, and behavioral responses. This multifaceted approach captures the complexity of emotions during interpersonal conflicts.

Research by James Pennebaker has demonstrated that the health benefits of expressive writing may be most improved by: 
  • a)
    Using many positive emotion words in writing about trauma 
  • b)
    Using many positive emotion words in writing about any topic 
  • c)
    Using few positive and negative emotion words in writing about trauma 
  • d)
    Using non-verbal expression of emotions about trauma 
  • e)
    Using non-verbal expression of emotions about any topic
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Pennebaker has demonstrated that expressive writing is most effective when it is done on a specific, traumatic topic and includes use of positive emotion words. Writing about any topic does not have the same effect on health. Using few positive and negative emotion words is associated with poor health outcomes. Non-verbal expressions are not part of expressive writing interventions.

Which of the following is NOT the case with respect to a primate’s secondary cortical taste area? 
  • a)
    It is also known as the orbitofrontal cortex. 
  • b)
    There is no modulation of taste responses in the secondary taste-processing region of the brain. 
  • c)
    As satiety develops, neuronal activity in the secondary taste cortex appears to make food less acceptable and less pleasant. 
  • d)
    Electrical stimulation in the secondary taste cortex produces reward.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
In a primate’s secondary cortical taste area (the orbitofrontal cortex), the responses of taste neurons to a food with which the monkey is fed to satiety decrease to zero (Rolls, Sienkiewicz & Yaxley, 1989, 1990). In other words, there is modulation or regulation of taste responses in this taste-processing region of the brain. This modulation is also sensory-specific. So if the monkey had recently eaten a large number of bananas, then there would be a decreased response of neurons in this region of the orbitofrontal cortex to the taste of banana, but a lesser decrease in response to the taste of an orange or melon.
This decreased responding in the orbitofrontal cortex neurons would be associated with a reduced likelihood for the monkey to eat any more bananas (and, to a lesser degree, any more orange or melon) until the satiety had reduced. As satiety develops, neuronal activity in the secondary taste cortex appears to make food less acceptable and less pleasant – the monkey stops wanting to eat bananas. In addition, electrical stimulation in this area produces reward, which also decreases in value as satiety increases (Mora et al., 1979).

The functions of some peripheral factors in the control of eating can be demonstrated by the sham feeding preparation. But which of the following is NOT true? In the sham feeding preparation: 
  • a)
    The animal tastes, smells and eats the food normally. 
  • b)
    The stomach becomes full. 
  • c)
    It becomes clear that the taste and smell of food provide the immediate reward for food-motivated behaviour. 
  • d)
    It becomes clear that oropharyngeal factors do not of themselves make us feel satiated.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
The functions of some peripheral factors in the control of eating can be demonstrated by the sham feeding preparation. In this preparation, the animal tastes, smells and eats the food normally, but the food drains away from the stomach. This means that, although the animal consumes the food, the stomach does not become full, since the food does not enter the stomach or intestine.
Experiments have shown that rats, monkeys and humans will work for food when they are sham feeding (see Rolls, 1999), often continuing to eat for more than an hour. This demonstrates that it is the taste and smell of food that provide the immediate reward for food-motivated behaviour. Further evidence for this is that humans are more likely to rate the taste and smell of food as being pleasant when they are hungry. One important aspect of sham feeding is that satiety (reduction of appetite) does not occur. From this we can conclude that taste, smell and even swallowing (i.e. oropharyngeal factors) do not of themselves make us feel satisfied, or satiated. Instead, satiety is produced by food accumulating in the stomach and entering the intestine.

Current research considers human sexual behaviour to be motivated by what factors in the brain? 
  • a)
    External sensory stimuli and organism’s internal state 
  • b)
    Pre-optic area and estrogen 
  • c)
    Interpersonal attraction and financial stability 
  • d)
    Intelligence and physical attractiveness 
  • e)
    None of the above
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Naina Sharma answered
External sensory stimuli in the form of smell, touch or even taste provide the immediate reward and the reward value of these stimuli is moderated by the organism’s internal state, such as hormonal status, fatigue, arousal level. The pre-optic area and estrogen are not factors, but an area of the brain and a hormone. Choices C and D are not part of the neural circuitry in the brain contributing to sexual behaviour, although they may influence people’s motivation to seek out sexual relationships.

Which, if any, of the factors below has probably NOT influenced human sexual behaviour in evolution? 
  • a)
    Women might choose a partner likely to provide reliability and stability. 
  • b)
    Women might be attracted to men who are successful and powerful. 
  • c)
    Men might guard the partner from the attentions of other men. 
  • d)
    None of the above – all are true.
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
It is possible that the following factors have shaped human sexual behaviour in evolution:
  • women might choose a partner likely to provide reliability, stability, provision of a home, and help with bringing up her children;
  • women might also be attracted to men who are perhaps successful and powerful, increasing the likelihood of producing genetically fit children, especially sons who can themselves potentially have many children;
  • men might engage in (and be selected for) behaviours such as guarding the partner from the attentions of other men, to increase the likelihood that the children in which he invests are his; and
  • men might be attracted to other women for their childbearing potential, especially younger women.

Identify the correct statement from the below: 
  • a)
    Emotions have no biological or evolutionary basis. 
  • b)
    Emotions involve both the CNS and the ANS. 
  • c)
    In the brain, only subcortical brain mechanisms are implicated in mediating emotion. 
  • d)
    Sham rage is so called because a strong stimulus can cause a release of autonomic responses (such as sweating and increasing blood pressur.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
By now it should be clear that emotions have biological and evolutionary bases and involve both the CNS and the ANS. Although subcortical brain mechanisms are implicated in emotion (from the brain stem to the hypothalamus, thalamus and amygdala), cortical structures play an executive role. Animals with their cortex removed but with intact hypothalamus and thalamus show violent (sham) rage. Sham rage is so called because a weak stimulus can cause a release of autonomic responses (such as sweating and increasing blood pressure) that are normally only elicited by strong stimuli, and the anger is not directed at any one particular entity. Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus can also produce such rage.

When thinking about the amygdala, which of the following do we find NOT to be the case? 
  • a)
    Many of the amygdala’s connections are similar to those of the orbitofrontal cortex. 
  • b)
    The amygdala has many connections to the orbitofrontal cortex. 
  • c)
    Bilateral damage to the temporal lobes of primates, including the amygdala, leads to the Kluver–Bucy syndrome. 
  • d)
    In the Kluver–Bucy syndrome, monkeys place only food items in their mouths but fail to avoid noxious stimuli.
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
Many of the amygdala’s connections are similar to those of the orbitofrontal cortex, and indeed it has many connections to the orbitofrontal cortex itself. Bilateral damage to the temporal lobes of primates, including the amygdala, leads to the Kluver–Bucy syndrome, in which, for example, monkeys place non-food as well as food items in their mouths and fail to avoid noxious stimuli (Aggleton & Passingham, 1982; Baylis & Gaffan, 1991; Jones & Mishkin, 1972; Kluver & Bucy, 1939; Murray et al., 1996). Rats with lesions in the basolateral amygdala display similar altered food selections.

The facial feedback hypothesis suggests which of the following possibilities? 
  • a)
    We smile because we are happy 
  • b)
    We become sad because we smile 
  • c)
    We become happy because we smile 
  • d)
    We smile because we are sad 
  • e)
    We smile because we think we are happy
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
The facial feedback hypothesis suggests that emotional experiences are intensified by the feedback we receive from our facial expressions, so we should feel happier when we smile. The other answers do not describe the facial feedback hypothesis.

Which one of the following findings would support the glucostatic hypothesis? 
  • a)
    Rats have the same level of plasma glucose concentration just before meals as just after. 
  • b)
    Injections of insulin provoke food intake. 
  • c)
    Infusions or injections of glucose and insulin provoke feeding. 
  • d)
    Infusions of a competitive inhibitor of glucose into the medulla reduce feeding.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
The glucostatic hypothesis is confirmed by the following findings:
  • Rats show a small decrease in plasma glucose concentration just before meals, suggesting that decreased glucose concentration initiates eating (Campfield & Smith, 1990). At the end of a meal, plasma glucose concentration rises, and so does insulin, which helps the glucose to be used by cells.
  • Injections of insulin, which reduce the concentration of glucose in the plasma (by facilitating its entry to cells and storage as fat), provoke food intake.
  • Infusions, or injections, of glucose and insulin (together enabling glucose to be taken up by the body’s cells) can reduce feeding.
  • The brain’s monitoring system for glucose availability seems to be in the part of the brain called the medulla (part of the brainstem), because infusions there of another competitive inhibitor of glucose (5-thio-glucose) also provoke feeding (Levin et al., 2000).

Identify the INCORRECT statement from those given below, which relate to Hull and Skinner’s three main approaches when tackling emotion: 
  • a)
    The procedures that demonstrate conditioned emotional responding involve a mixture of classical and instrumental conditioning. 
  • b)
    Much of everyday life appears to be characterized by a mixture of instrumental and classical conditioning. 
  • c)
    The frustration effect involves a decrease in behavioural vigour after experiencing non-reward. 
  • d)
    A neutral stimulus that leads to a negative, unconditioned stimulus leads in turn to anxiety.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
Think of how you feel and what you do if you put money into a vending machine, press the button or pull the drawer, and nothing happens. Amsel (1958, 1962) trained rats to run down an alley to food in a goal box and, from there, along a second alley to a second goal box. When the first goal box was left empty, the rats ran faster along the second alley. This increase in vigour is known as the frustration effect. It is reasonable to regard an increase in behavioural vigour following the frustration of experiencing non-reward, where reward was previously experienced, as an indirect measure of emotion.
The procedures that demonstrate conditioned emotional responding involve a mixture of classical and instrumental conditioning. Picture a rat in a Skinner box pressing a bar for food reinforcement. Sometimes a light comes on and is followed by an unavoidable electric shock. The rat soon learns to associate light and shock. When the light is on, it will decrease its rate of bar-pressing. After the shock, it will increase it again. This effect is sometimes known as conditioned anxiety and sometimes as conditioned suppression.
Much of everyday life appears to be characterized by this type of mixture of instrumental and classical conditioning. Unconditioned stimuli are frequently emotional and influence other behaviour. Millenson (1967) used these ideas to suggest a three-part behavioural model of emotion, in which all emotions are seen as deriving from various intensities and combinations of anxiety, elation and anger. As we have seen, a neutral stimulus that leads to a negative unconditioned stimulus leads in turn to anxiety. Moreover, a neutral stimulus that leads to an unconditioned positive stimulus (say, free food to a hungry rat) leads to elation, and a neutral stimulus that leads to the removal of an unconditioned positive stimulus results in anger.

The role of cognitive appraisal in emotion considers which dimension(s) to be most important for evaluating a situation?
  • a)
    Attention
  • b)
    Certainty
  • c)
    Reward
  • d)
    Situational Control
  • e)
    (a), (b) and (d)
Correct answer is option 'E'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
Attention, certainty and situational control are three of the six dimensions listed as types of appraisal associated with emotional experiences. Reward is not a dimension of cognitive appraisal.

Which of the following is true of emotion? 
  • a)
    The measurement of emotion has been made difficult by the existence of a strong folk psychology of emotion. 
  • b)
    In practice, it is not possible both to measure emotion and to make firm science-based statements about it. 
  • c)
    Emotion as understood in everyday terms and as portrayed in fiction offers few insights. 
  • d)
    There are no differences between a measurement-based science and an everyday folk psychology.
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
A particular problem regarding the measurement of emotion comes from the existence of a strong folk psychology of emotion. Because we are used to observing emotion and thinking about it in everyday life, over time, cultures and subcultures have developed their own language for communicating about emotion. There are important differences between a measurement-based science and an everyday folk psychology. In practice, it is possible both to measure emotion and to make firm science-based statements about it. However, emotion as understood in everyday terms and as portrayed in fiction offers insights that should not be ignored.

Schacter and Singer’s theory of emotion differs from the theories of James-Lange and Cannon-Bard. How does it differ? 
  • a)
    Schacter and Singer’s theory of emotion includes development and arousal 
  • b)
    Schacter and Singer’s theory of emotion includes the limbic system 
  • c)
    Schacter and Singer’s theory includes cognition and arousal 
  • d)
    Schacter and Singer’s theory has never been criticised 
  • e)
    Schacter and Singer’s theory is more relevant to society today
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Kiran Mehta answered
Schacter and Singer emphasized the role of cognition as well as physiological arousal in the experience of emotions. They did not emphasize development or the limbic system differently from James-Lange or Cannon-Bard. Their theory has been criticized and it is equally relevant to society today.

The orbitofrontal cortex:
  1. Has critical implications for survival.
  2. Serves a reward-decoding function.
  3. Plays a very important role in emotion.
  4. Is not involved in learning which stimuli are foods.
  • a)
    1, 2 & 3 
  • b)
    1 & 4 
  • c)
    2, 3 & 4 
  • d)
    2 & 3
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Kiran Mehta answered
The functioning of the orbitofrontal brain region could have critical implications for survival. In an evolutionary context, without this function of the orbitofrontal cortex, animals might have consumed large quantities of poisonous foodstuffs and failed to learn which colours and smells signify nutritious foods.
The orbitofrontal cortex is important not only in representing whether a taste is rewarding, and so whether eating should occur, but also in learning about which (visual and olfactory) stimuli are actually foods (Rolls, 1996, 1999, 2000c). Because of its reward-decoding function, and because emotions can be understood as states produced by rewards and punishments, the orbitofrontal cortex plays a very important role in emotion (see Rolls, 1999).

Long-term regulation of body weight and fat has been associated with the following hormone: 
  • a)
    Hypothalamus 
  • b)
    Estrogen 
  • c)
    Cortisol 
  • d)
    Leptin 
  • e)
    Angiotensin II
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Leptin does not fluctuate in response to meals, but rather over 24 hours, and has been related to long-term appetite and weight regulation. The hypothalamus is not a hormone. Estrogen and cortisol are two hormones that have not been associated with long-term weight regulation. Angiotensin II is a hormone associated with detecting hydration-dehydration.

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