Page 1
49
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Y
ou saw in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 how kingdoms
rose and fell. Even as this was happening, new arts,
and villages. Over the centuries important political,
social and economic developments had taken place.
But social change was not the same everywhere,
because different kinds of societies evolved
differently. It is important to understand
how and why this happened.
In large parts of the subcontinent, society
was already divided according to the rules
of . These rules, as prescribed by the
Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers
of large kingdoms. The difference between
the high and low, and between the rich and
poor, increased. Under the Delhi Sultans
and the Mughals, this hierarchy between
social classes grew further.
Beyond Big Cities: Tribal
Societies
There were, however, other kinds of
societies as well. Many societies in the
subcontinent did not follow the social rules
and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas.
Nor were they divided into numerous
unequal classes. Such societies are often
called tribes.
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Fig. 1
Tribal dance,
Santal painted scroll.
Page 2
49
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Y
ou saw in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 how kingdoms
rose and fell. Even as this was happening, new arts,
and villages. Over the centuries important political,
social and economic developments had taken place.
But social change was not the same everywhere,
because different kinds of societies evolved
differently. It is important to understand
how and why this happened.
In large parts of the subcontinent, society
was already divided according to the rules
of . These rules, as prescribed by the
Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers
of large kingdoms. The difference between
the high and low, and between the rich and
poor, increased. Under the Delhi Sultans
and the Mughals, this hierarchy between
social classes grew further.
Beyond Big Cities: Tribal
Societies
There were, however, other kinds of
societies as well. Many societies in the
subcontinent did not follow the social rules
and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas.
Nor were they divided into numerous
unequal classes. Such societies are often
called tribes.
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Fig. 1
Tribal dance,
Santal painted scroll.
50
Members of each tribe were united by kinship
bonds. Many tribes obtained their livelihood from
agriculture. Others were hunter-gatherers or herders.
Most often they combined these activities to make
full use of the natural resources of the area in which
they lived. Some tribes were nomadic and moved
from one place to another. A tribal group controlled
land and pastures jointly, and divided these amongst
households according to its own rules.
Many large tribes thrived in different parts of the
subcontinent. They usually lived in forests, hills,
clashed with the more powerful caste-based societies.
In various ways, the tribes retained their freedom and
preserved their separate culture.
But the caste-based and tribal societies also
depended on each other for their diverse needs. This
caused both societies to change.
Who were Tribal People?
Contemporary historians and travellers give very
scanty information about tribes. A few exceptions
apart, tribal people did not keep written records. But
they preserved rich customs and oral traditions. These
were passed down to each new generation. Present-
day historians have started using such oral traditions
to write tribal histories.
Tribal people were found in almost every region of
varied at different points of time. Some powerful tribes
controlled large territories. In Punjab, the Khokhar
fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became
more important. Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar,
was made a noble ( ) by Emperor Akbar. In
Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated
extensive regions before they were subdued by the
Mughals. The Balochis were another large and powerful
On a physical
map of the
subcontinent,
identify the areas
in which tribal
people may have
lived.
?
Page 3
49
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Y
ou saw in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 how kingdoms
rose and fell. Even as this was happening, new arts,
and villages. Over the centuries important political,
social and economic developments had taken place.
But social change was not the same everywhere,
because different kinds of societies evolved
differently. It is important to understand
how and why this happened.
In large parts of the subcontinent, society
was already divided according to the rules
of . These rules, as prescribed by the
Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers
of large kingdoms. The difference between
the high and low, and between the rich and
poor, increased. Under the Delhi Sultans
and the Mughals, this hierarchy between
social classes grew further.
Beyond Big Cities: Tribal
Societies
There were, however, other kinds of
societies as well. Many societies in the
subcontinent did not follow the social rules
and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas.
Nor were they divided into numerous
unequal classes. Such societies are often
called tribes.
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Fig. 1
Tribal dance,
Santal painted scroll.
50
Members of each tribe were united by kinship
bonds. Many tribes obtained their livelihood from
agriculture. Others were hunter-gatherers or herders.
Most often they combined these activities to make
full use of the natural resources of the area in which
they lived. Some tribes were nomadic and moved
from one place to another. A tribal group controlled
land and pastures jointly, and divided these amongst
households according to its own rules.
Many large tribes thrived in different parts of the
subcontinent. They usually lived in forests, hills,
clashed with the more powerful caste-based societies.
In various ways, the tribes retained their freedom and
preserved their separate culture.
But the caste-based and tribal societies also
depended on each other for their diverse needs. This
caused both societies to change.
Who were Tribal People?
Contemporary historians and travellers give very
scanty information about tribes. A few exceptions
apart, tribal people did not keep written records. But
they preserved rich customs and oral traditions. These
were passed down to each new generation. Present-
day historians have started using such oral traditions
to write tribal histories.
Tribal people were found in almost every region of
varied at different points of time. Some powerful tribes
controlled large territories. In Punjab, the Khokhar
fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became
more important. Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar,
was made a noble ( ) by Emperor Akbar. In
Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated
extensive regions before they were subdued by the
Mughals. The Balochis were another large and powerful
On a physical
map of the
subcontinent,
identify the areas
in which tribal
people may have
lived.
?
51
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
tribe in the north-west. They were divided into many
smaller clans under different chiefs. In the western
Himalaya lived the shepherd tribe of Gaddis. The
distant north-eastern part of the subcontinent too was
entirely dominated by tribes – the Nagas, Ahoms and
many others.
In many areas of present-day Bihar and Jharkhand,
Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the twelfth century.
Raja Man Singh, Akbar’s famous general, attacked
and defeated the Cheros in 1591. A large amount of
booty was taken from them, but they were not entirely
subdued. Under Aurangzeb, Mughal forces captured
many Chero fortresses and subjugated the tribe. The
Mundas and Santals were among the other important
tribes that lived in this region and also in Orissa
and Bengal.
Map 1
Location of some
of the major Indian
tribes.
Clan
Page 4
49
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Y
ou saw in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 how kingdoms
rose and fell. Even as this was happening, new arts,
and villages. Over the centuries important political,
social and economic developments had taken place.
But social change was not the same everywhere,
because different kinds of societies evolved
differently. It is important to understand
how and why this happened.
In large parts of the subcontinent, society
was already divided according to the rules
of . These rules, as prescribed by the
Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers
of large kingdoms. The difference between
the high and low, and between the rich and
poor, increased. Under the Delhi Sultans
and the Mughals, this hierarchy between
social classes grew further.
Beyond Big Cities: Tribal
Societies
There were, however, other kinds of
societies as well. Many societies in the
subcontinent did not follow the social rules
and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas.
Nor were they divided into numerous
unequal classes. Such societies are often
called tribes.
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Fig. 1
Tribal dance,
Santal painted scroll.
50
Members of each tribe were united by kinship
bonds. Many tribes obtained their livelihood from
agriculture. Others were hunter-gatherers or herders.
Most often they combined these activities to make
full use of the natural resources of the area in which
they lived. Some tribes were nomadic and moved
from one place to another. A tribal group controlled
land and pastures jointly, and divided these amongst
households according to its own rules.
Many large tribes thrived in different parts of the
subcontinent. They usually lived in forests, hills,
clashed with the more powerful caste-based societies.
In various ways, the tribes retained their freedom and
preserved their separate culture.
But the caste-based and tribal societies also
depended on each other for their diverse needs. This
caused both societies to change.
Who were Tribal People?
Contemporary historians and travellers give very
scanty information about tribes. A few exceptions
apart, tribal people did not keep written records. But
they preserved rich customs and oral traditions. These
were passed down to each new generation. Present-
day historians have started using such oral traditions
to write tribal histories.
Tribal people were found in almost every region of
varied at different points of time. Some powerful tribes
controlled large territories. In Punjab, the Khokhar
fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became
more important. Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar,
was made a noble ( ) by Emperor Akbar. In
Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated
extensive regions before they were subdued by the
Mughals. The Balochis were another large and powerful
On a physical
map of the
subcontinent,
identify the areas
in which tribal
people may have
lived.
?
51
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
tribe in the north-west. They were divided into many
smaller clans under different chiefs. In the western
Himalaya lived the shepherd tribe of Gaddis. The
distant north-eastern part of the subcontinent too was
entirely dominated by tribes – the Nagas, Ahoms and
many others.
In many areas of present-day Bihar and Jharkhand,
Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the twelfth century.
Raja Man Singh, Akbar’s famous general, attacked
and defeated the Cheros in 1591. A large amount of
booty was taken from them, but they were not entirely
subdued. Under Aurangzeb, Mughal forces captured
many Chero fortresses and subjugated the tribe. The
Mundas and Santals were among the other important
tribes that lived in this region and also in Orissa
and Bengal.
Map 1
Location of some
of the major Indian
tribes.
Clan
52
The Maharashtra highlands and
Karnataka were home to Kolis,
Berads and numerous others.
Kolis also lived in many areas of
Gujarat. Further south there were
large tribal populations of Koragas,
Vetars, Maravars and many others.
The large tribe of Bhils was
spread across western and central
India. By the late sixteenth
century, many of them had
become settled agriculturists and
some even zamindars. Many Bhil
clans, nevertheless, remained
hunter-gatherers. The Gonds were
found in great numbers across the
present-day states of Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh.
How Nomads and
Mobile People Lived
Nomadic pastoralists moved
over long distances with their
animals. They lived on milk and
other pastoral products. They also
exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with
settled agriculturists for grain,
cloth, utensils and other products.
Fig. 2
Bhils hunting deer by night.
Fig.3
A chain of mobile traders connected
India to the outside world. Here you see
nuts being gathered and loaded on the
backs of camels. Central Asian traders
brought such goods to India and the
Banjaras and other traders carried
these to local markets.
Page 5
49
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Y
ou saw in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 how kingdoms
rose and fell. Even as this was happening, new arts,
and villages. Over the centuries important political,
social and economic developments had taken place.
But social change was not the same everywhere,
because different kinds of societies evolved
differently. It is important to understand
how and why this happened.
In large parts of the subcontinent, society
was already divided according to the rules
of . These rules, as prescribed by the
Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers
of large kingdoms. The difference between
the high and low, and between the rich and
poor, increased. Under the Delhi Sultans
and the Mughals, this hierarchy between
social classes grew further.
Beyond Big Cities: Tribal
Societies
There were, however, other kinds of
societies as well. Many societies in the
subcontinent did not follow the social rules
and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas.
Nor were they divided into numerous
unequal classes. Such societies are often
called tribes.
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
Fig. 1
Tribal dance,
Santal painted scroll.
50
Members of each tribe were united by kinship
bonds. Many tribes obtained their livelihood from
agriculture. Others were hunter-gatherers or herders.
Most often they combined these activities to make
full use of the natural resources of the area in which
they lived. Some tribes were nomadic and moved
from one place to another. A tribal group controlled
land and pastures jointly, and divided these amongst
households according to its own rules.
Many large tribes thrived in different parts of the
subcontinent. They usually lived in forests, hills,
clashed with the more powerful caste-based societies.
In various ways, the tribes retained their freedom and
preserved their separate culture.
But the caste-based and tribal societies also
depended on each other for their diverse needs. This
caused both societies to change.
Who were Tribal People?
Contemporary historians and travellers give very
scanty information about tribes. A few exceptions
apart, tribal people did not keep written records. But
they preserved rich customs and oral traditions. These
were passed down to each new generation. Present-
day historians have started using such oral traditions
to write tribal histories.
Tribal people were found in almost every region of
varied at different points of time. Some powerful tribes
controlled large territories. In Punjab, the Khokhar
fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became
more important. Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar,
was made a noble ( ) by Emperor Akbar. In
Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated
extensive regions before they were subdued by the
Mughals. The Balochis were another large and powerful
On a physical
map of the
subcontinent,
identify the areas
in which tribal
people may have
lived.
?
51
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
tribe in the north-west. They were divided into many
smaller clans under different chiefs. In the western
Himalaya lived the shepherd tribe of Gaddis. The
distant north-eastern part of the subcontinent too was
entirely dominated by tribes – the Nagas, Ahoms and
many others.
In many areas of present-day Bihar and Jharkhand,
Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the twelfth century.
Raja Man Singh, Akbar’s famous general, attacked
and defeated the Cheros in 1591. A large amount of
booty was taken from them, but they were not entirely
subdued. Under Aurangzeb, Mughal forces captured
many Chero fortresses and subjugated the tribe. The
Mundas and Santals were among the other important
tribes that lived in this region and also in Orissa
and Bengal.
Map 1
Location of some
of the major Indian
tribes.
Clan
52
The Maharashtra highlands and
Karnataka were home to Kolis,
Berads and numerous others.
Kolis also lived in many areas of
Gujarat. Further south there were
large tribal populations of Koragas,
Vetars, Maravars and many others.
The large tribe of Bhils was
spread across western and central
India. By the late sixteenth
century, many of them had
become settled agriculturists and
some even zamindars. Many Bhil
clans, nevertheless, remained
hunter-gatherers. The Gonds were
found in great numbers across the
present-day states of Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh.
How Nomads and
Mobile People Lived
Nomadic pastoralists moved
over long distances with their
animals. They lived on milk and
other pastoral products. They also
exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with
settled agriculturists for grain,
cloth, utensils and other products.
Fig. 2
Bhils hunting deer by night.
Fig.3
A chain of mobile traders connected
India to the outside world. Here you see
nuts being gathered and loaded on the
backs of camels. Central Asian traders
brought such goods to India and the
Banjaras and other traders carried
these to local markets.
53
TRIBES, NOMADS AND
SETTLED COMMUNITIES
They bought and sold these goods as they moved
from one place to another, transporting them on their
animals.
The Banjaras were the most important trader-
nomads. Their caravan was called . Sultan
Alauddin Khalji (Chapter 3) used the Banjaras to
transport grain to the city markets. Emperor Jahangir
wrote in his memoirs that the Banjaras carried grain
on their bullocks from different areas and sold it in
towns. They transported food grain for the Mughal
army during military campaigns. With a large army
there could be 100,000 bullocks carrying grain.
The Banjaras
Peter Mundy, an English trader who came to India
during the early seventeenth century, has described
the Banjaras:
In the morning we met a tanda of Banjaras with 14,000
oxen. They were all laden with grains such as wheat and
rice ... These Banjaras carry their household – wives and
children – along with them. One tanda consists of many
families. Their way of life is similar to that of carriers who
continuously travel from place to place. They own their oxen.
They are sometimes hired by merchants, but most commonly
they are themselves merchants. They buy grain where it is
cheaply available and carry it to places where it is dearer.
From there, they again reload their oxen with anything that
more than 6 or 7 miles a day – that, too, in the cool weather.
After unloading their oxen, they turn them free to graze as
there is enough land here, and no one there to forbid them.
Find out how grain is transported from villages
to cities at present. In what ways is this similar
to or different from the ways in which the
Banjaras functioned?
?
Nomads and
itinerant groups
Read More