Stone tools such as pebbles, sharp stones, stone blades etc were used for various purposes in early human life. Paintings found on the walls of the caves in Europe and Africa are helping us to understand early human history. Most scholars refused to accept that these objects were the remains of early humans

Early Societies: Writing and City Life

**Introduction**
Early societies were characterized by the emergence of writing and the development of city life. These two factors played crucial roles in shaping civilizations and transforming human existence. Writing allowed for the preservation and transmission of knowledge, while the establishment of cities created hubs of economic, social, and cultural activity.

**Writing: Preservation and Transmission of Knowledge**
Writing was a revolutionary advancement in early societies as it enabled the preservation of knowledge. Before the invention of writing, knowledge was primarily transmitted orally, making it susceptible to loss or distortion over time. However, with the advent of writing systems such as cuneiform in Mesopotamia or hieroglyphics in Egypt, information could be recorded and passed down through generations.

Writing also facilitated the expansion of knowledge. It allowed for the accumulation of ideas, experiences, and discoveries, enabling societies to build upon previous achievements. It became a tool for scientific, religious, and administrative purposes, allowing for the organization and dissemination of information. For example, ancient medical texts recorded diagnostic methods, treatments, and surgical procedures, contributing to the progress of medicine.

**City Life: Hubs of Economic, Social, and Cultural Activity**
The establishment of cities marked a significant shift in early societies. As agricultural practices became more advanced, surplus food production led to the growth of populations. This, in turn, necessitated the development of centralized settlements, which eventually evolved into cities. Cities became hubs of economic, social, and cultural activity.

Economically, cities served as centers of trade and commerce. They facilitated the exchange of goods, encouraging specialization and the growth of markets. Craftsmen and merchants congregated in cities, leading to the emergence of a diverse range of professions. This economic prosperity attracted people from surrounding areas, contributing to urbanization.

Socially, cities fostered the formation of complex social structures. As populations grew, social hierarchies emerged, with rulers and nobles asserting their authority. Cities also became melting pots of diverse cultures and ideas, promoting social interactions and cultural exchange.

Culturally, cities became centers of innovation and creativity. They provided platforms for artistic expression, intellectual pursuits, and the development of religious and philosophical ideas. Monuments, temples, and libraries were constructed, showcasing the achievements and aspirations of these early societies.

**Conclusion**
Writing and city life were pivotal in shaping early societies. Writing enabled the preservation and transmission of knowledge, facilitating the expansion of human understanding and progress. Cities, on the other hand, served as hubs of economic, social, and cultural activity, fostering innovation, social interaction, and cultural exchange. These two factors laid the foundation for the development of civilizations and continue to be fundamental aspects of human existence today.