Liberalism and conservatism are two major political ideologies that often clash in political science. Liberalism emphasizes individual freedom, equality, and government intervention to promote social welfare, while conservatism emphasizes tradition, limited government intervention, and individual responsibility. Class 12 students study the origins, key principles, and policy implications of these ideologies.


The debate between capitalism and socialism revolves around the organization of economic systems. Capitalism promotes private ownership, free markets, and profit-driven mechanisms, while socialism advocates for collective ownership, planned economies, and equitable distribution of resources. Class 12 students learn about the strengths and weaknesses of these economic systems and their impact on society.


The tension between nationalism and globalism is another important debate in political science. Nationalism prioritizes the interests and identity of a nation-state, while globalism emphasizes cooperation, interconnectedness, and a global perspective. Class 12 students analyze the implications of these perspectives on issues such as sovereignty, migration, and international relations.


The contrast between democracy and authoritarianism is a fundamental debate in political science. Democracy emphasizes popular sovereignty, political participation, and respect for individual rights, while authoritarianism concentrates power in the hands of a single leader or elite group. Class 12 students examine the advantages and disadvantages of these political systems and their impact on governance and citizen rights.


The debate between secularism and religious fundamentalism centers around the role of religion in politics and society. Secularism advocates for the separation of religion and state, ensuring equal treatment of all religious and non-religious groups, while religious fundamentalism seeks to establish a society based on strict adherence to religious principles. Class 12 students explore the complexities and challenges associated with these perspectives.


The conflict between environmentalism and economic development arises from the need to balance ecological sustainability with economic growth. Environmentalism emphasizes the conservation of natural resources, reduction of pollution, and sustainable practices, while economic development focuses on increasing prosperity and industrialization. Class 12 students analyze the trade-offs and policy implications of these competing priorities.

Overall, these major debates and controversies studied in Class 12 political science provide a comprehensive understanding of the diverse perspectives and challenges that shape political systems and societies around the world.