Major Philosophical Schools and Their Teachings Covered in the Syllabus:

Ancient Indian Philosophy:
- The syllabus covers different schools of ancient Indian philosophy, including Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa, and Vedanta.
- Nyaya focuses on logic and epistemology, emphasizing the process of correct reasoning and valid knowledge.
- Vaisheshika explores the nature of reality and the classification of different types of substances.
- Samkhya delves into metaphysics, discussing the existence of the material and spiritual realms.
- Yoga emphasizes self-discipline and meditation as a means to achieve spiritual enlightenment.
- Purva Mimamsa focuses on the interpretation of the Vedas and ritualistic practices.
- Vedanta explores the nature of reality, divine consciousness, and the relationship between the individual self (Atman) and the universal self (Brahman).

Modern Indian Philosophy:
- The syllabus also covers major schools of modern Indian philosophy, such as Brahmo Samaj, Pragmatism, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, and Mahatma Gandhi.
- Brahmo Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, emphasizes monotheism, social reform, and the rejection of idol worship.
- Pragmatism, influenced by the works of William James and John Dewey, focuses on practical consequences and the importance of experience in determining the truth.
- Swami Vivekananda's teachings revolve around Vedanta and the idea of universal harmony through the realization of one's divine nature.
- Sri Aurobindo combines spirituality with social and political transformation, emphasizing the evolution of human consciousness.
- Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy includes principles of nonviolence (ahimsa), truth (satya), and self-reliance (swaraj).

Western Philosophy:
- The syllabus covers various schools of Western philosophy, including rationalism, empiricism, idealism, materialism, existentialism, and postmodernism.
- Rationalism, represented by philosophers such as René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, emphasizes reason and innate knowledge as sources of truth.
- Empiricism, advocated by philosophers like John Locke and David Hume, emphasizes sensory experience and observation as the basis of knowledge.
- Idealism, associated with philosophers like George Berkeley and Immanuel Kant, posits that reality is ultimately mental or conceptual in nature.
- Materialism, represented by thinkers such as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, asserts that matter is the fundamental substance and determinant of reality.
- Existentialism, popularized by Jean-Paul Sartre and Friedrich Nietzsche, explores the nature of human existence, freedom, and responsibility.
- Postmodernism, represented by thinkers like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, challenges traditional notions of truth, knowledge, and identity.

Conclusion:
The syllabus for the UPSC exam covers a wide range of philosophical schools and their teachings. From ancient Indian philosophy to modern Indian and Western philosophy, candidates are expected to have a comprehensive understanding of different philosophical perspectives. This knowledge helps them develop critical thinking, logical reasoning, and a deeper understanding of the human condition and society.