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Overview

  • After the Congress of Vienna, liberal and nationalist ideas spread easily across Europe, especially where there were socioeconomic issues.
  • The nineteenth century was marked by industrialization, modernization, a demographic explosion, and advancements in transportation and communication.
  • This period witnessed unprecedented changes such as growing literacy, rapid urbanization, shifts in political institutions, the emergence of national identity, cultural developments, remarkable scientific discoveries, and significant changes in lifestyles.
  • These profound transformations inevitably led to major social changes.

19th Century European Revolutions | History Optional for UPSC (Notes)

Revolutions of the 1820s

  • The first of these revolutions occurred in 1820 in Spain. In 1812, a liberal constitution known as The Cádiz Constitution was established. However, after the Congress of Vienna, King Ferdinand VII disregarded this constitution. In 1820, a military uprising led by General Riego aimed to restore liberal principles, forcing Ferdinand to accept the constitution. By 1823, the Congress of Verona sent French troops, dubbed the ‘100,000 Sons of Saint Louis’, to reassert Ferdinand’s authority and suppress the rebels.
  • Despite this, liberal ideas rapidly spread to Portugal, the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, and various German states. However, revolts in these regions were swiftly quelled by military forces.
  • In 1821, a Greek revolution against Ottoman rule met with greater success. Greek nationalists garnered European support by appealing to sympathy for a Christian nation under Muslim dominance. With the backing of France, Britain, and Russia, Greece achieved independence in 1829 and was recognized as a sovereign nation by 1832.
  • By the mid-1820s, liberal movements began to resurface in Britain, France, and the Low Countries. Liberals advocated for stronger parliaments, broader protection of individual rights, and voting rights for the propertied classes. They also pushed for commercial legislation favoring business growth, such as opposing the Corn Law tariffs in Britain, which protected landlord interests and maintained high food prices and wages. Belgian liberals, too, were driven by nationalist sentiments, as the Treaty of Vienna had placed their country under Dutch rule.

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Revolutions of the 1830s

  • In 1830, liberal concerns sparked a new wave of revolution, ignited by an uprising in Paris. Known as the ‘July Revolution’, it led to the ousting of the ultraconservative Bourbon King Charles X and the ascension of the more liberal-oriented Louis Philippe I. Charles X, who favored absolutism, attempted to revert to the Ancien Régime, but faced opposition from the upper bourgeoisie and influential liberals who encouraged the public to revolt against him. As a result, France transitioned into a constitutional monarchy.
  • In Belgium, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, formed after the Congress of Vienna, encompassed a southern part (now Belgium) that was predominantly Catholic and French-speaking, and a northern part (now Holland) that was Dutch-speaking and Protestant (Calvinist). In 1830, a rebellion erupted in Brussels, ultimately leading to Belgian independence in 1831, under a new king, Leopold I, and a liberal government.
  • Following the revolutions of 1820 and 1830, liberal governments proliferated across Europe. The only regions remaining absolutist were Central Europe, the German and Italian states (except Savoy), and the empires of Russia, Austria, and Turkey.
  • Europe became divided into a liberal west and a conservative centre and east. Russia appeared largely insulated from the political currents affecting the rest of the continent, partly due to the lack of significant social and economic change. A revolt by liberal-minded army officers in 1825, known as the Decembrist revolt, was easily suppressed, and the new tsar,Nicholas I, implemented a stricter system of political police and censorship. A nationalist revolt in Poland, part of the 1830 movement, was also violently suppressed. Russian diplomatic interests continued along traditional lines, with ongoing warfare against the Ottoman Empire to gain southern territories. It wasn’t until after 1850 that the Russian regime seriously reconsidered its conservative stance.

This pattern did not hold elsewhere in Europe. Scandinavian governments moved towards increasing liberalism by expanding parliamentary powers, a process completed in the late 1840s. The Dutch monarchy followed suit. The next significant advancement came from a series of revolutions in 1848, marking the final revolutionary wave in Western Europe.

Revolutions of 1848

1848 was a remarkable year in European history, marked by widespread revolutions and uprisings. Historians refer to this year as “The Spring of Nations.” In addition to the factors from previous revolutions, several new causes can be identified:

  • Some earlier revolutions, such as the one in France, began to take effect.
  • In countries where absolutism remained strong, the bourgeoisie rose against it. Conversely, in countries with a constitutional monarchy, radical politicians, often from the proletariat class (known as democrats), sought more significant changes in their parliamentary systems, such as universal suffrage.
  • Industrialization led to technological changes, creating a new class—the proletariat.
  • Technological advancements also facilitated a wider press, enabling faster dissemination of ideas across a broader segment of society.
  • Nationalism gained strength.
  • Socialism gained rapid momentum, especially after the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels in 1848.
  • Crop failures in 1846 across Europe led to an economic crisis, fostering discontent among peasants and the emerging working classes.

The revolutions of 1848 unfolded in most Western and Central European countries, including France, the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Poland, Belgium, Ireland, and various German states such as Prussia, Saxony, and Venice-Lombardy. Some uprisings also had nationalist elements, particularly in Italian and German regions.

Significant changes emerged from the 1848 uprisings:

  • Manorialism was permanently abolished across Germany and the Habsburg territories, granting peasants new rights.
  • Democracy was established in France, even under the new empire and despite considerable manipulation; universal manhood suffrage was permanently instituted.
  • Prussia, despite conservative leadership, set up a parliament based on a limited vote, acknowledging liberal sentiments.
  • The Habsburg monarchy implemented a rationalized bureaucratic system to replace localized landlord authority.
  • Some feminist movements emerged in France and Germany.

The stage was set for rapid political evolution after 1850, making literal revolutions increasingly challenging.

The document 19th Century European Revolutions | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) is a part of the UPSC Course History Optional for UPSC (Notes).
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FAQs on 19th Century European Revolutions - History Optional for UPSC (Notes)

1. What were the main causes of the revolutions of the 1820s in Europe?
Ans. The revolutions of the 1820s in Europe were primarily caused by a combination of political, social, and economic factors. Key causes included the desire for national independence, the demand for constitutional governance, the rise of liberalism, and the impact of the Napoleonic Wars, which stirred nationalist sentiments. Additionally, economic hardships and social unrest, particularly among the working classes, played a significant role in igniting revolutionary movements.
2. How did the revolutions of the 1830s differ from those of the 1820s?
Ans. The revolutions of the 1830s differed from those of the 1820s in terms of their motivations and outcomes. While the 1820s revolutions were largely focused on constitutional reforms and national independence, the 1830s revolutions often aimed at broader social and political changes, including demands for more extensive civil rights and social justice. The 1830s also saw the rise of more radical political movements, such as socialism, which sought to address the needs of the working class.
3. What role did the 1848 revolutions play in shaping modern Europe?
Ans. The 1848 revolutions, often referred to as the "Springtime of Nations," played a crucial role in shaping modern Europe by promoting ideas of nationalism, liberalism, and social reform. These revolutions, which spread across multiple countries, led to significant political changes, including the establishment of republics and the expansion of suffrage. However, many of these changes were short-lived, leading to a backlash and the eventual consolidation of conservative power, which set the stage for future political developments in Europe.
4. Which countries experienced significant revolutions during the 19th century in Europe?
Ans. Several countries experienced significant revolutions during the 19th century in Europe, including France, Belgium, Italy, Germany, and Austria. The French Revolution of 1830, the Belgian Revolution, and the wave of uprisings in 1848 across various states were pivotal in challenging autocratic regimes and advocating for national sovereignty and democratic governance. Each of these revolutions had unique characteristics and consequences, but collectively they contributed to the rise of modern nation-states in Europe.
5. What were the social implications of the revolutions in the 19th century?
Ans. The social implications of the revolutions in the 19th century were profound, leading to shifts in class structures and the emergence of new social movements. The revolutions brought issues such as labor rights, women's rights, and social equity to the forefront, as the working class began to organize and demand better conditions. Additionally, the revolutions fostered a greater sense of national identity and civic participation, influencing future social and political movements throughout Europe.
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