Aesthetics and Empire, c. 300–600 CE - 1 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Copper Plates Discovered in a Pot

The period around 300-600 CE saw a variety of inscriptions, primarily on stone and some on copper plates, from the imperial Guptas and contemporary dynasties like the Vakatakas, Kadambas, Varmans, and Hunas. These inscriptions, especially the prashastis (panegyrics), served as public messages detailing royal genealogies and political events. However, they tended to focus on political successes and often contained conflicting claims from different dynasties. The descriptions of kings reflected the prevailing power hierarchies and ideals of kingship. Royal land grant inscriptions provided insights into socio-economic processes, administrative structures, and agrarian relations of the time. Donative inscriptions from private individuals offered glimpses into social history and the sources of patronage for religious establishments.

Coins and Seals as Public Messages

• Coins and seals during this period were not just mediums of exchange or authentication but also served as public message-bearing media. The Gupta kings issued a large number of gold coins known as dinaras, which were similar to the Roman denarius. These coins featured the names and epithets of kings, often with metrical legends. The obverse typically depicted the king, while the reverse showcased an image of a deity. 
• Rulers like Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta, and Budhagupta also issued silver coins resembling those of the western Kshatrapas. These coins usually displayed the king’s portrait on the obverse, sometimes with a date, and a motif such as a garuda or peacock on the reverse, surrounded by a circular legend. Copper coins from the Guptas are rare, and contemporary dynasties also produced their own coins.
• Coins and seals served as public message-bearing media, in addition to being used for exchange and authentication. Gupta kings issued numerous gold coins known as dinaras, which were similar to the Roman denarius. These coins featured the names and titles of kings, often accompanied by metrical legends. The obverse typically displayed the king's representation, while the reverse depicted a deity. 
• Rulers like Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta, and Budhagupta also minted silver coins resembling those of the western Kshatrapas. The obverse of these coins featured the king's portrait, sometimes with a date, while the reverse showcased a motif, such as a garuda or peacock, surrounded by a circular legend. Copper coins from the Gupta period are rare. 
• Contemporary dynasties, including the Kadambas, Ikshvakus, Vishnukundins, and Nagas, also issued coins. Recently, Vakataka coins made of base metal with a high copper content have been discovered in the Wardha area, characterized by irregular size and light weight standards. Similar coins were found in excavations at Mansar near Ramtek in Nagpur district. Seals and sealings have been unearthed in large quantities at sites such as Basarh (ancient Vaishali ), Bhita, and Nalanda. 

 Sanskrit Literature and Texts 

• 300–600 CE  witnessed significant advancements in Sanskrit literature. During this period, the epics and major Puranas were finalized, serving as crucial sources for understanding the religious and cultural dynamics of the time. 

Religious Texts  

• The Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati, and Katyayana Smritis were composed during this era.  

Literary Works  

• Kamandaka's Nitisara, a treatise on polity directed at kings, was written in the 4th century CE.  
• The Manjushri-mulakalpa, a Buddhist Mahayana text, includes a historical account of Gauda and Magadha from the early centuries CE to the early medieval period.  
• The Jaina Harivamsha Purana (8th century) and the Tiloya Pannati provide insights into political chronology.  
• Fragments of the Devi-Chandragupta, a lost drama by Vishakhadatta, offer relevant information for Gupta political history.  
• Sanskrit Kavya and the Kathasaritsagara, a collection of popular folklore, are valuable but underutilized sources for understanding the social history of the period.  

Works on Medicine and Astronomy  

• Treatises on medicine and astronomy reflect the prevailing knowledge in these fields.  
• Technical works like the Kamasutra (on pleasure) and the Amarakosha (a lexicon) provide information on various aspects of society.  

Tamil Epics  

• The Silappadikaram and Manimekalai, Tamil epics from the 5th/6th century, offer rich insights into the history of South India.  
• In the period around 300–600 CE, there were significant developments in Sanskrit literature. During this time, the epics and major Puranas were finalized, and these texts became crucial sources for understanding the religious and cultural processes of the era. The Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati, and Katyayana Smritis also originated in this period. 
• In the 4th century CE, Kamandaka wrote the Nitisara, a work on polity intended for kings. The Manjushri-mulakalpa, a Buddhist Mahayana text, includes a chapter on the history of India, particularly Gauda and Magadha, from the early centuries CE to the early medieval period. The Jaina Harivamsha Purana (8th century) and the Tiloya Pannati provide details on political chronology. 
• Fragments of the Devi-Chandragupta, a lost drama by Vishakhadatta, found in a manuscript of Bhoja ’s Shringara-Prakasha, are relevant for Gupta political history. Sanskrit kavya is an under-utilized source for the social history of the period, as is the Kathasaritsagara, a collection of popular folklore. Works on medicine and astronomy reflect the knowledge of these fields at the time. Technical treatises like the Kamasutra (on pleasure) and the Amarakosha (a lexicon) also provide information on various aspects of life. The Tamil epics—the Silappadikaram and Manimekalai —from the 5th or 6th century, are valuable sources for the history of South India. 

Copper Plate Seals

Travels of Chinese Monks to India

• Between the late 3rd and 8th centuries, many Chinese monks traveled to India to collect Buddhist texts, visit important Buddhist pilgrimage sites, and interact with Indian monks.
• The peak of this movement of Chinese monk-scholars occurred in the 5th century.

Surviving Records of Chinese Travelers

• Although several travelers recorded their observations, only three accounts have survived in full: Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing.

Faxian's Travels in India

• Faxian's journey in India lasted about a decade (c. 337–422 CE) and took him from the north-west into the Ganga valley, reaching the eastern seaport of Tamralipti in the Bay of Bengal.
• From Tamralipti, he sailed to Simhala (Sri Lanka) and then to Southeast Asia before returning to China.
• Faxian dedicated the rest of his life to translating the vast number of texts he had collected and wrote an account of his travels called the Gaoseng Faxian zhuan, meaning "A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms."
• The book, formerly known as Fo-kuo- ki in Chinese, does not mention the reigning king (likely Chandragupta II) but provides various observations about people’s lives, some accurate and others not.

Absence of Indian Accounts

• While many Indian monks also traveled to China, there are no surviving accounts of their experiences or travels.

Western Accounts of India

• There are a few Western accounts of India during this period, such as Cosmas Indicopleustes'Christian Topography, written in the 6th century. Cosmas was a merchant who traveled extensively, including to India, before becoming a monk.
• The writings of Procopius of Caesarea provide insights into India's trade relations with the Byzantine Empire.

Samudragupta's Subordination of Other Rulers

Tribute and Obedience: The prashasti (inscription) mentions rulers offering tribute, obeying the Gupta king's orders, and coming to pay their respects.

Frontier Kings: Rulers from regions such as Samatata, Davaka, Kamarupa, Nepala, and Kartripura were among those who submitted to Samudragupta.

• Samatata: Corresponds to southeast Bengal.
• Davaka: Refers to the area around Dabok in Naogaon district, Assam.
• Kamarupa: Corresponds to the Guwahati region in Assam.
• Nepala: Roughly corresponds to modern Nepal.
• Kartripura: May have included Kartarpur in Jalandhar district and the Katuria raj of Kumaon, Garhwal, and Rohilkhand.

Ganas: Several ganas (tribal groups) were also subordinated, including the Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunas, Sanakanikas, Kakas, and Kharaparikas.

• Malavas: Based in southeast Rajasthan.
• Arjunayanas: Located in the Bharatpur-Alwar areas of Rajasthan.
• Yaudheyas: Held influence in parts of Punjab and Rajputana.
• Sanakanikas: Located in eastern Malwa or northwestern part of the subcontinent.
• Kakas: Possibly connected with Kakanadabota (ancient Sanchi) in Madhya Pradesh or located in the northwest.
• Madrakas: Originally from modern Sialkot in Punjab.
• Abhiras: Likely located in the northern Konkan region.
• Prarjunas: Probably located in the northwest.

Feudatory Relationship: The relationship between the Gupta emperor and these groups resembled a feudatory relationship, although there is no direct mention of them providing troops. This may be implied within the concept of ajna-karana, meaning obeying the orders of their overlord.

Samudragupta’s Empire and Governance

Rulers and Alliances

• Line 23 of the inscription mentions various rulers serving Samudragupta, seeking the Gupta garuda seal, and forming matrimonial alliances with the Guptas.
• These rulers included those with titles like Daivaputra, Shahi, and Shahanushahi, possibly representing the remnants of Kushana rule.
• The Shakas and Murundas are also mentioned in this context.
• There is a reference to the people of Simhala (Sri Lanka) and other island dwellers.
• A Chinese text notes king Meghavarna of Sri Lanka sending a mission with gifts to Samudragupta, seeking permission to build a monastery and rest house for Sri Lankan pilgrims at Bodh Gaya, which was granted, and the monastery later praised by Xuanzang in the 7th century.

Territorial Extent

• At the end of his reign, Samudragupta’s empire likely included much of northern India, excluding Kashmir, western Punjab, Rajasthan, Sindh, and Gujarat.
• His empire covered central India east of Jabalpur, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and the eastern coast up to Chingleput.
• This core of directly annexed territories was surrounded by numerous subordinate states.
• To the north-west were the Shaka and Kushana principalities, over which Samudragupta claimed dominance.
• To the south, the kings of Dakshinapatha were subdued but not annexed or reduced to feudatory status.
• Further south, the island of Sri Lanka also acknowledged Gupta suzerainty.

The Guptas did not establish an all-India empire under direct control but created a network of political relationships of paramountcy and subordination extending over much of the subcontinent through military campaigns.

Samudragupta as a Ruler

• Harishena’s Portrait: Samudragupta is depicted as a restless conqueror, but Harishena also portrays him as a capable and compassionate ruler concerned for his subjects' welfare.
• Conventional Characteristics: These qualities are common in ancient prashastis (inscriptions praising kings).
• Non-Standard Elements: Some unique traits in the portrayal may reflect Samudragupta's actual talents, such as his intellectual prowess.
• Example of Talent: Samudragupta is said to have surpassed Brihaspati, the gods’ preceptor, in wisdom, showcasing his exceptional abilities.
• Samudragupta's coins depict him in various poses that suggest his martial prowess, such as: 
•  As an archer with a bow and arrow 
•  Standing with a battleaxe and a dwarf looking up at him 
•  Trampling and killing a tiger 
•  The 'ashvamedha type' of coin shows a sacrificial horse standing before a decorated yupa. 
•  The 'standard type' coin features Samudragupta holding a long staff (possibly a spear, javelin, or sceptre) and offering oblations into a fire altar, with the garuda standard to the left. 
•  One coin type depicts Samudragupta sitting on a couch, playing the vina (lyre). 
•  The reverse of his coins sometimes features the goddess Ardoksho holding a cornucopia and a noose, or a goddess standing on an elephant-headed fish holding a lotus, or a standing female figure (possibly a queen) with a fly whisk. 
•  Legends on Samudragupta's coins include epithets like:   "parakramah" (brave),   "apratirathah" (invincible),   "ashvamedha-parakramah" (powerful enough to perform the ashvamedha),   "vyaghra-parakramah" (brave as a tiger). 
•  Longer metrical legends elaborate on these images, such as:   "one who has won victories on a hundred battlefields and conquered enemies wins heaven,"   "the king of kings who performed the horse sacrifice, having protected the earth, wins heaven." 

Gupta genealogies list Chandragupta II as Samudragupta’s successor. But evidence indicates that a king named Ramagupta ruled in between, from c. 370 to 375 CE. 

Chandragupta II

• The height of territorial expansion in the Gupta Empire occurred under Chandragupta II.
• He ruled from around 376 to 413/415 CE and was the son of Samudragupta and Dattadevi.
• Chandragupta II was known by titles such as parama-bhagavata and vikramaditya.

 An inscription on an iron pillar in Mehrauli, Delhi, mentions a king named Chandra, leading to various identifications, including: 

• The Maurya king Chandragupta
• The Gupta kings Chandragupta I or Samudragupta
• The Naga king Chandramsha
• Chandravarman of Malwa
• A king mentioned in an inscription found at Susuniya

 Reasons for Identifying the King as Chandragupta II 

• Chandragupta II is called Chandra on his coins.
• An inscription from Udayagiri caves indicates his military conquests.
• The Delhi region was likely part of his empire.
• He was a follower of Vaishnavism.

 Debate on the Mehrauli Inscription 

• Scholars debate whether the Mehrauli inscription was made while the king was alive or posthumously.
• D. R. Bhandarkar believed the king was alive during the engraving.
• D. C. Sircar suggested the pillar was erected by Chandragupta II late in his life, with the record engraved after his death, possibly during the reign of his successor Kumaragupta.

Ramagupta and the Shaka Invasion:

• Ramagupta's Dilemma: A king named Ramagupta faced an invasion from a powerful Shaka king.
• Dishonorable Deal: Advised by his minister, Ramagupta chose to avoid battle by agreeing to hand over his queen, Dhruvadevi, to the invader.
• Kumara's Revenge: Ramagupta's younger brother, Kumara, was outraged by this decision. He infiltrated the Shaka camp disguised as Dhruvadevi and killed the enemy king.
• Fratricide and Marriage: Kumara later killed his brother Ramagupta and married his sister-in-law, Dhruvadevi.
• Later References: These events are echoed in later texts like Bana Bhatta’s Harshacharita and Shankararya’s commentary on it.
• Persian Account: An 11th-century Persian work, the Majmat-ul-Tawarikh by Abul Hasan Ali, adds details about Kumara's rise in popularity and his brother's jealousy, suggesting that Kumara feigned madness before killing Ramagupta.
• Rashtrakuta Inscriptions: Inscriptions from the Rashtrakuta period (9th/10th century) allude to these dramatic events, indicating their lasting impact.
• Coins and Inscriptions: Coins found in Bayana, Rajasthan, with legends interpreted as ‘Kacha’ or ‘Rama,’ and copper coins from Bhilsa bearing the garuda emblem, similar to Chandragupta’s coins, suggest Ramagupta’s historical presence.
• Jain Tirthankara Images: Images of Jain tirthankaras found at Durjanpura near Vidisha, with inscriptions attributing their installation to Maharajadhiraja Ramagupta, further support the existence of a Gupta king by this name, although some argue it refers to a later ruler.

Chandragupta II

•  According to the Mehrauli inscription, Chandragupta II (also known as Vikramaditya) fought against a coalition of enemies in Bengal and led a campaign into the Punjab region. 
•  His coins and inscriptions suggest that his rule extended into Malwa and western India, likely at the expense of the Shakas. 
•  The last Shaka inscription found in western India is dated to 388 CE, indicating that Gupta rule prevailed thereafter. 
•  Chandragupta II’s empire likely stretched from Bengal to the northwest, and from the Himalayan terai to the Narmada River. 
•  The Guptas formed a matrimonial alliance with the Vakatakas of the Deccan. 
•  Prabhavatigupta, Chandragupta II’s daughter, was married to King Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty. 

Post-Chandragupta II Rule

•   After Chandragupta II, his son Kumaragupta I took over the throne and performed the ashvamedha sacrifice. His coins often featured the god Karttikeya.  
•   During Kumaragupta I's reign, there were signs of trouble from the north-west. This threat was initially handled by his son, Skandagupta.  
•   Skandagupta's rule was marked by significant military challenges, including an invasion by the Huna people.  
•   An inscription from Girnar rock highlights Skandagupta’s governor, Parnadatta, for repairing the Sudarshana lake.  
•   Following Skandagupta, several other Gupta kings ruled, including Purugupta, Kumaragupta II, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III, and Vishnugupta.  
•   During this period, the Gupta Empire was recognized by various local rulers, such as the Parivrajaka maharajas and possibly the maharajas of Uchchakalpa in central India.  
•   As the empire started to weaken, these subordinate rulers gained more independence.  
•   The decline of the Gupta Empire can be attributed to several factors, including competition from the Vakatakas, the rise of leaders like Yashodharman of Malwa, and the invasions by the Huna.  

Later Gupta Kings

 After Skandagupta, several Gupta kings ruled the empire, including Purugupta, Kumaragupta II, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III, and Vishnugupta. During this period, the Gupta Empire was recognized by various local rulers, including the Parivrajaka maharajas and possibly the maharajas of Uchchakalpa in central India. 

• However, as the empire weakened, these subordinate rulers began to assert their independence. The decline of the Gupta Empire was due to several factors, including competition from the Vakatakas, the rise of Yashodharman of Malwa, and invasions by the Huna people. 
• In the mid-5th century, the Yetha, known as the Hepthalites (White Huns) in Greek accounts, became powerful in the Oxus valley. From here, they made inroads towards Iran and India. Crossing the Hindu Kush, they occupied Gandhara, although their further movement was repulsed by Skandagupta’s army. However, in the late 5th century or early 6th century CE, the Huna chief Toramana managed to conquer large parts of western India and the area around Eran in central India. Numismatic evidence suggests his sway may have extended over parts of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, and Kashmir. The Kuvalayamala, an 8th century Jaina text, refers to Toramana adopting the Jaina faith and living on the banks of the Chenab at Pavvaiya. 

 Toramana and Mihirakula 

• Toramana was succeeded by his son Mihirakula, who continued to expand the Huna Empire. Mihirakula is known for his harsh rule, particularly in regions like Kashmir and Gandhara. Historical texts, such as the Rajatarangini, describe his cruelty and exaggerate his conquests in South India and Sri Lanka. 
• Despite his victories in northern India, Mihirakula faced defeats by local rulers like Yashodharman of Malwa, Narasimhagupta, and the Maukharis. After Mihirakula’s reign, the power of the Huna Empire began to decline. 

Mihirakula and the Decline of the Huna Power

•  Mihirakula, the son and successor of Toramana, was a ruler of the Huna dynasty. His inscriptions have been found in places like Gwalior, and the Chinese traveler Xuanzang identified his capital as Sakala (modern-day Sialkot). 
•  Historical references, such as the Rajatarangini, highlight Mihirakula’s cruelty and suggest that he ruled over regions like Kashmir and Gandhara. However, these accounts exaggerate his conquests, claiming he took over South India and Sri Lanka. 
•  Despite his initial successes in northern India, Mihirakula faced significant defeats against rivals like Yashodharman of Malwa, Narasimhagupta, and the Maukharis. Following these defeats, the power and influence of the Hunas began to decline. 

Inscription of Chandra

•  The Sanskrit inscription in question is found on an iron pillar located in the Jami Masjid within the Qutb complex in Delhi. 
•  This pillar, which stands at a height of 7.16 meters, features a solid, slightly tapering shaft and is topped by an inverted lotus emblem. 
•  Above the lotus, there are three fluted discs (amalakas) that support a square pedestal. It is believed that the pillar was originally crowned by a Vaishnava emblem, possibly depicting a garuda. 
•  The inscription is noteworthy for several reasons: the metallurgical skill demonstrated in forging such a long piece of iron, the clarity of the inscriptions even after many centuries, and the pillar's relative rust-free condition despite the passage of time. 
•  The inscription itself praises a king named Chandra, who is said to have achieved supreme sovereignty on earth through his own prowess and devotion to Vishnu. The lofty standard of Lord Vishnu mentioned in the inscription was reportedly set up on Vishnupada hill by this king. 

The Vakatakas of the Deccan

The history of the Vakatakas is primarily known through inscriptions and ancient texts like the Puranas. There is ongoing debate among scholars about the original home of the Vakatakas, with some suggesting it was in South India. This theory is supported by various pieces of evidence:

• The mention of 'Vakataka' in an inscription from Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.
• Similarities between technical terms in Vakataka inscriptions and those in the Hirehadagalli and Mayidavolu grants of the Pallava king Shivaskandavarman.
• The use of titles like Haritiputra and Dharmamaharaja in the Vakataka inscriptions, which also appear in inscriptions of southern dynasties such as the Pallavas, Kadambas, and Chalukyas of Badami.
• Inscriptions from the time of Harishena, the last known king of the Vakataka line of Vatsagulma, referring to a minister's family from Vallura, possibly Velur, near Hyderabad, further supporting the idea of a South Indian origin.
•  The history of the Vakatakas, a dynasty known from inscriptions and texts like the Puranas, is debated regarding their original home. Some scholars suggest South India due to inscriptions and similarities with southern dynasties. However, others, like Ajay Mitra Shastri, argue for an initial base in the Vindhyan region, north of the Narmada. The Puranas refer to them as the Vindhyakas. Evidence from inscriptions and the identification of ancient towns supports the idea of their early presence in the Vindhyan region, from where they expanded into the Deccan.   This dynasty, active from the mid-3rd to the late 5th/early 6th centuries CE, had marital connections with prominent dynasties like the Guptas and Kadambas. 
•  Vindhyashakti I, the founder of the Vakataka dynasty, is celebrated in inscriptions for his military prowess. Harishena's inscription at Ajanta poetically describes Vindhyashakti's victories, likening his majesty to deities like Indra and Vishnu. He is portrayed as a Brahmana of the Vishnuvriddha gotra, emphasizing his noble lineage. 

Vakataka Dynasty: Overview

• The Vakataka dynasty was a prominent ancient Indian royal family known for their significant contributions to Indian history, particularly in the Deccan region. They are believed to have ruled during the 3rd to 5th centuries CE. The dynasty is often associated with the promotion of Hinduism, art, and architecture, as well as their involvement in various religious and cultural activities. The Vakatakas are also known for their connections with other dynasties, including the Gupta Empire, and for playing a crucial role in the political and cultural landscape of ancient India. 
• The Vakataka dynasty is believed to have originated from the region around modern-day Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. They were likely a powerful and influential family in the region before establishing their rule over a larger territory. The exact details of their early history are not well-documented, but they gradually gained prominence and became a significant force in central India. 
• The Vakataka dynasty is believed to have originated from the region around modern-day Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. They were likely a powerful and influential family in the region before establishing their rule over a larger territory. The exact details of their early history are not well-documented, but they gradually gained prominence and became a significant force in central India.
• The Vakataka dynasty is believed to have originated from the region around modern-day Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. They were likely a powerful and influential family in the region before establishing their rule over a larger territory. The exact details of their early history are not well-documented, but they gradually gained prominence and became a significant force in central India. 
• The Vakataka dynasty is believed to have originated from the region around modern-day Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. They were likely a powerful and influential family in the region before establishing their rule over a larger territory. The exact details of their early history are not well-documented, but they gradually gained prominence and became a significant force in central India. 

Early Vakataka Rulers

Vakataka Dynasty

The Vakatakas were a significant dynasty in ancient India, known for their contributions to art, architecture, and literature. They played a crucial role in the cultural and political landscape of the Deccan region.

Pravarasena II

• The majority of Vakataka inscriptions are from the reign of Pravarasena II.
• Earlier inscriptions were issued from Nandivardhana, while later ones came from Pravarapura, identified with Paunar in the Wardha district.
• Prabhavatigupta continued to issue inscriptions during her son’s reign and died later in his rule.
• A Prakrit work called Setubandha or Ravanavaho, related to Rama’s journey to Lanka and his victory over Ravana, is attributed to Pravarasena II, though it’s uncertain if he actually wrote it.

Succession and Challenges

• After the death of Pravarasena II, there may have been a succession struggle.
• Narendrasena eventually became king, claiming obedience from kings of Kosala, Mekala, and Malava, though this might have been an exaggeration.
• Narendrasena likely faced challenges from his relatives, possibly from the Vatsagulma branch.
• He married a princess from Kuntala, possibly a Kadamba princess, and copper coins attributed to him have been found at Paunar.

Prithivishena II

• The last known king of the Nandivardhana branch was Prithivishena II, who claimed to have rescued his family’s fortunes twice.
• Copper coins from Paunar are believed to belong to his reign.
• The Nandivardhana branch may have ended due to competition with the Vatsagulma branch or the Nalas of Dakshina Kosala.

Sudarshana Lake and Its Legacy

• The Sudarshana lake at Junagadh gained fame, and its name became popular for lakes and reservoirs in the northern Deccan.
• A reservoir built by Prabhavatigupta’s children in her memory was known as Sudarshana.
• The Hisse-Borala stone inscription records the creation of a tank called Sudarshana by Svamilladeva, an officer of king Devasena.

Vatsagulma Dynasty

 Harishena, the last known king of the Vatsagulma line, issued the Thalner plates in his third regnal year. During his reign, many of the Ajanta caves were created. 

•  The inscriptions in Cave 16 and the nearby Ghatotkacha cave were commissioned by Harishena's minister Varahadeva, while the inscription in Cave 17 was apparently made by one of Harishena's vassals. 
•  Varahadeva's inscription in the Ajanta caves credits Harishena with extensive conquests in regions such as Kuntala, Avanti, Kalinga, Kosala, Trikuta, Lata, and Andhra. 
•  These inscriptions offer valuable insights into the political history of the Vatsagulma branch. 

Other Dynasties of Peninsular India

Political History of the Far South (c. 300-600 CE)

• Pallavas of Kanchi: Associated with Tondaimandalam, the region between the north Penner and Vellar rivers. Stone and copper plate inscriptions in Prakrit and Sanskrit, dated between the 3rd and 7th centuries CE, mention various kings of this dynasty.
• Notable Kings: Prakrit inscriptions reference kings like Shivaskandavarman, believed to have ruled in the early 4th century. Vishnugopa, a king of Dakshinapatha, was defeated by Samudragupta. Sanskrit inscriptions mention kings such as Virakurcha, Skandashishya, Simhavarman I, and Simhavarman II.
• Simhavarman: Towards the end of the 6th century, Simhavarman marked the beginning of significant political expansion for the Pallavas.

The Administrative Structure of the Gupta and Vakataka Kingdoms

Political Hierarchies and Titles

• From around 300 CE, political hierarchies in the Gupta Empire can be identified through the titles of rulers, which indicate relationships of paramountcy and subordination.
• Gupta kings adopted imperial titles such as maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka, and parameshvara, signifying their high status and authority.
• They also associated themselves with the divine by using epithets like parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and parama-bhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna).

Divine Status and Comparisons

• Some historians suggest that Gupta kings claimed divine status, as seen in the Allahabad prashasti, which describes Samudragupta as a god on earth and comparable to other deities like Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna, Indra, and Antaka (Yama).
• However, these descriptions are more about elevating the king's status by comparing him to gods rather than asserting his divinity.

Official Ranks and Designations

• Seals and inscriptions from the period mention various official ranks and designations, although their exact meanings are often unclear.
• The term kumaramatya, found on several Vaishali seals, likely referred to a high-ranking officer with his own office (adhikarana).
• The designation amatya, seen on Bhita seals, suggests that kumaramatyas were prominent among amatyas and held a status comparable to royal princes.
• Kumaramatyas could be attached to various authorities, including the king, crown prince, revenue department, or a province.

Examples of Administrative Roles

• One Vaishali seal mentions a kumaramatya responsible for maintaining the sacred coronation tank of the Lichchhavis.
• Individuals holding the rank of kumaramatya sometimes had additional titles, and these ranks could be hereditary.
• For instance, Harishena, who composed the Allahabad prashasti, was a kumaramatya as well as a sandhivigrahika and mahadandanayaka, and he was the son of another mahadandanayaka, Dhruvabhuti.

Continuity of Administrative Roles

• The Karamdanda stone inscription of Kumaragupta I mentions two generations of mantri-kumaramatyas who served different kings.
• Shikharasvamin served Chandragupta II, and his son, Prithivishena, served Kumaragupta I and was later described as mahabaladhikrita, indicating his high status and responsibilities.

District Administration in the Gupta Empire

During the Gupta empire, the provinces were further divided into districts called vishayas, which were governed by officers known as vishayapatis. While these officers were typically appointed by the provincial governor, there are instances, such as the Indore copper plate inscription from Gupta year 146 during King Skandagupta's reign, where the king himself appointed vishayapatis. This inscription mentions Sharvanaga, a vishayapati governing Antaravedi, indicating the king's direct involvement in appointments.

The Eran pillar inscription from the time of the Huna ruler Toramana also refers to a vishaya, showing continuity in administrative divisions after the Gupta period.

District-Level Administration in Bengal

• The Damodarpur copper plates from Gupta year 124, during the reign of Kumaragupta I, provide insights into district-level administration in Bengal.
• These plates document orders regarding land transactions issued to village officials by the adhikarana (administrative body) of Kotivarsha vishaya.
• The adhishthana adhikarana of Kotivarsha consisted of five members:
• Uparika or vishayapati (head of the adhikarana)
• Nagarasreshthin (chief merchant or banker)
• Sarthavaha (chief caravan trader)
• Prathama-kulika (chief artisan or merchant)
• Prathama-kayastha (chief scribe or revenue officer)
• This structure indicates that the vishayapati was supported by prominent local figures in his administrative duties.

Administrative Units Below District Level

• Below the district level, administrative units included clusters of settlements known as vithi, patta, bhumi, pathaka, and petha.
• Officials such as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras were responsible for these units.
• At the village level, villagers elected functionaries like the gramika and gramadhyaksha, and village elders played a significant role in various matters.
• The Damodarpur copper plate from the reign of Budhagupta (Gupta year 163) mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana, a board of eight members headed by the mahattara.
• The term mahattara can refer to a village elder, headman, or community leader.
• The Sanchi inscription from the time of Chandragupta II mentions the pancha-mandali, possibly a corporate village body.

Administrative System of the Gupta Empire

During the Gupta Empire, the administrative units below the district level consisted of clusters of settlements known by various names such as vithi, patta, bhumi, pathaka, and petha. Officials called ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras were responsible for these units. At the village level, villagers elected functionaries like the gramika and gramadhyaksha, and village elders played a significant role in local matters.

• The Damodarpur copper plate from the reign of Budhagupta mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana, a board of eight members headed by the mahattara. 
• The term mahattara could refer to a village elder, headman, or community leader. Similarly, the Sanchi inscription from the time of Chandragupta II refers to the pancha-mandali, possibly a corporate village body.

Disagreement over Lines 5 and 6

There is a debate about the meaning of Lines 5 and 6 in the inscription:

• Some scholars, like N. G. Majumdar and Fleet, believe these lines indicate that the land was purchased from members of the royal family (rajakula) named Maja, Sharabhanga, and Amrarata.
• Others, such as Chhabra and Gai, interpret rajakula as a palace and suggest that Maja, Sharabhanga, and Amrarata were names of palaces occupied by Chandragupta II during his military campaigns. According to this view, the land was bought with the proceeds from the sale of these palaces.
• D. C. Sircar agreed with the standard meaning of rajakula as royal family but proposed that one half of the payment for the land was made by Amrakarddava and the other half by his friends.
• Chhabra and Gai also suggested that since the income from the land and the interest on the money were meant for the same purposes, the two gifts were likely of similar value.

Interpretation of Line 6

• Line 6 of the inscription includes the phrase "panchamandalya pranipatya", which has different interpretations:
• Fleet proposed amending "mandalya" to "mandalyam" and suggested that Amrakarddava prostrated himself before the village panchayat (local council) before making the gift.
• N. G. Majumdar kept the phrase as "panchamandalya pranipatya" and interpreted it as Amrakarddava prostrating himself with a group of five, though he was uncertain about its meaning.
• D. R. Bhandarkar and G. S. Gai criticized Fleet's interpretation, arguing that if the "pancha-mandali" referred to a village body, it should be in the accusative case, not the locative case. They suggested that the phrase meant Amrakarddava prostrated himself in such a way that five parts of his body—forehead, elbows, waist, knees, and feet—touched the ground before making the gift.

Administrative Structure:

Military Officials:

• Dandanayakas and Mahadandanayakas: High-ranking judicial or military officers mentioned in seals and inscriptions from c. 300–600 CE. These posts were likely hereditary.
• Notable Officials: Agnigupta (Vaishali seal), Tilakabhatta (Allahabad prashasti), Vishnurakshita (Bhita seal), and others held significant military and administrative roles.
• Military Designations: Terms like baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander-in-chief), bhatashvapati (commander of infantry and cavalry), and ranabhandagaradhikarana (office of military storehouse) were used.

Royal Establishment Officials:

• Mahapratihara: Chief of palace guards.
• Khadyatapakita: Superintendent of the royal kitchen.
• Amatyas and Sachivas: Executive officers in charge of various departments.
• Espionage: Spies known as dutakas were part of the system.

Cave 16 at Ajanta

• An inscription outside Cave 16 at Ajanta records the gift of the cave to the Buddhist sangha by Varahadeva, a minister of the Vatsagulma branch of the Vakatakas.
• The first 20 verses give the genealogy of the reigning king Harishena. The inscription also describes Varahadeva and his father Hastibhoja who served as minister under Harishena and his father Devasena respectively.
• Hastibhoja is described as an abode of merit, as having a broad and stout chest, obliging, loving, affable, and as one who destroyed the allies of his enemies. He is said to have ruled his people well, being as dear to them as their father, mother, and friend.
• King Devasena is said to have entrusted the care of government to him and devoted himself to the enjoyment of pleasures. Varahadeva is said to have ruled the land well, possessing the virtues of liberality, forgiveness, and generosity.

Ghatotkacha Cave at Guwada

• An inscription in the Ghatotkacha cave at Guwada, located 11 miles west of Ajanta, records the dedication of the cave by a person whose name is lost. However, based on other details, it is believed that the dedicant is none other than Varahadeva.
•  An inscription located outside Cave 16 at Ajanta documents the donation of the cave to the Buddhist sangha by Varahadeva, a minister from the Vatsagulma branch of the Vakatakas. The initial 20 verses of the inscription outline the lineage of the reigning king Harishena. It also provides details about Varahadeva and his father, Hastibhoja, who served as ministers under Harishena and his father Devasena, respectively. 
• Hastibhoja is described as a person of great merit, with a broad and strong chest, known for his obliging nature, love, affability, and his ability to defeat the allies of his enemies. He is praised for his good governance and being as beloved to his people as a father, mother, or friend. 
• King Devasena entrusted the governance to Hastibhoja while indulging in pleasures himself. 
• Varahadeva is depicted as a virtuous ruler, embodying qualities such as liberality, forgiveness, and generosity. 
•  Another inscription in the Ghatotkacha cave at Guwada, located 11 miles west of Ajanta, records the dedication of the cave by a person whose name is lost but is believed to be Varahadeva. This inscription describes his family as esteemed Brahmanas called Valluras, after their hometown, Vallura, possibly identified with a village named Velur in the Karimnagar district of Karnataka. 
• The inscription highlights a long genealogy and eulogy of Varahadeva's family, indicating that up to nine generations served as ministers under the Vakatakas. 
•  The inscriptions of the Vakataka feudatories mention several administrative terms: 
•  Rahasika: A confidential officer associated with the king, as seen in the Bamhani plates of Bharatabala, a ruler of Mekala. 
•  Gramakuta: Refers to the village headman. 
•  Devavarika: Possibly the same as dauvarika, this role may have involved being the head of the village police. 
•  Gandakas: Likely comparable to the bhatas mentioned in Vakataka grants. 
•  Dronagrakanayaka: This position might have been responsible for the administrative unit known as the dronagraka or dronamukha.