Aesthetics and Empire, c. 300–600 CE - 2 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Revenue Sources of Ancient Indian States

Narada Smriti and Kamandaka’s Nitisara

• The Narada Smriti (18.48) states that subjects owe revenue to the king in return for protection.
• Kamandaka’s Nitisara (5.84–85) advises the king to be like a florist or milkman when taxing subjects. Just as these professionals care for their plants and animals at the right times, the king should assist subjects with money and provisions at times and tax them at others.
• Kamandaka also warns that royal officials who become wealthy through corruption should be punished, likening it to a surgeon treating an abscess.

Nitisara and Arthashastra

• The Nitisara, like the Arthashastra, highlights the importance of the royal treasury and various revenue sources.
• Kings like Samudragupta likely funded their military campaigns through revenue surpluses.

Gupta Inscriptions and Revenue Department

• Gupta inscriptions provide insights into the revenue department, including roles like the akshapataladhikrita, who kept royal records.
• The Gaya copper plate inscription mentions Gopasvamin, an akshapataladhikrita during Samudragupta’s reign, who ordered the inscription of the copper plate.
• Record keepers, known as pustapalas, tracked land transfers.

Fiscal Terms

• Gupta inscriptions reference fiscal terms such as kara, bali, udranga, uparikara, and hiranya.
• Vakataka inscriptions mention terms like klipta and upaklipta, along with vishti or forced labor.

Interpretation Challenges

• Interpreting the exact meanings of some fiscal terms in ancient inscriptions poses challenges.
• The term bhaga referred to the king’s grain share, typically 1/6th of agricultural produce, as described in the Narada Smriti.
• The Paharpur and Baigram plates support this by stating that 1/6th of the merit from a donation would go to the king.
• However, 1/6th was a conventional figure, and there is limited information on the actual amounts collected by ancient states from farmers.
• The earlier Manu Smriti (7.130–132) also reflects this variability, suggesting the king could take 1/6th, 1/8th, or 1/12th of the crop yield from subjects.

Land Ownership in Ancient and Early Medieval India

The ownership of land in ancient and early medieval India is a debated topic, with three main types of ownership being considered: communal/corporate ownership (where the village community owns the land), royal ownership (where the king owns the land), and private ownership (where individuals own the land). Different texts from the Dharmashastra tradition have varying opinions on land rights, and sometimes make contradictory statements.

• Some texts suggest that the village community had a significant role in land-related matters, such as settling boundary disputes and land sales. For example, the king was expected to inform the village community when he gifted land. The Vishnu Smriti and the earlier Manu Smriti indicate that pasture land was considered community property and could not be divided. The village community also appears to have rights over water resources.
• Earlier sources also discussed the indivisibility of landed property, suggesting that it could not be divided. For instance, the Gautama Smriti states that what constitutes livelihood cannot be divided, and the Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini suggests that the earth is common to all, and even an emperor cannot give away all his land. This idea was later supported by Shabarasvamin in his commentary on the Mimamsa Sutra.
•  In ancient India, there were differing views on land ownership and its division. Some early sources believed that landed property was indivisible and could not be split. For example, the Gautama Smriti (28.46) suggested that what constitutes yoga-kshema (livelihood) is undividable. Similarly, the Mimamsa Sutra by Jaimini (6.7.3) from the 4th/3rd century BCE claimed that the earth is common to all and even a ruler cannot distribute all his land. This viewpoint was later echoed by Shabarasvamin in the 4th century CE. 
•  Inscriptions from ancient India also indicate that land was viewed as the property of the village community. 
•  However, there is more evidence supporting the idea of royal ownership of land. Greek texts referencing Megasthenes claimed that all land in India was owned by the king. Kautilya also mentioned land owned by the king, known as sita land. Ancient Indian texts often linked the king with the earth, and the Dharmashastra provided specific instances of royal land ownership justifying taxation. For instance, the Manu Smriti (8.39) stated that the king is entitled to half of the ore from mines because he is the lord of the earth and provides protection. 
•  Law books from the Gupta period reflected the rise of royal power and authority, asserting the king's ownership of soil, though with some ambiguity. The Katyayana Smriti (verse 16) declared the king as the owner of the soil (bhu-svamin) entitled to claim 1/4th of farmers' produce. Yet, the subsequent verse recognized human beings as the land's owners due to their habitation. The Narada Smriti (11.27, 42) granted the king the right to dispossess peasants of their fields and houses but advised against such extreme actions as these were essential for the householders' survival. 
•  Later sources, such as a commentary on the Narasimha Purana, unequivocally asserted royal ownership of land, stating it belonged to the king, not the cultivators. Bhattasvamin's 12th-century commentary on the Arthashastra also justified taxation based on royal land ownership. Conversely, there was an early school of thought rejecting the king's ownership of land, arguing that taxation was the king's wage for protecting his subjects. Jaimini and Shabara were prominent proponents of this view. 

Royal Ownership of Land in Ancient India

• Ancient texts and inscriptions provide evidence for the belief that land in ancient India was primarily owned by the king. Greek texts, quoting Megasthenes, and Kautilya’s references to royal land ownership support this view. The Dharmashastra, particularly the Manu Smriti, suggests that the king owned the land and was entitled to a share of resources, justifying taxation.
• While the law books of the Gupta period strengthened the idea of royal land ownership, there were conflicting views. Some texts, like the Katyayana Smriti and the Narada Smriti, acknowledged the rights of peasants while asserting royal claims. Later sources, such as commentaries on the Narasimha Purana and the Arthashastra, unequivocally stated royal ownership of land.
• Inscriptions and land grants have been used to argue for royal land ownership. However, these do not imply that all land belonged to the king. Instances of kings purchasing land for pious donations suggest that royal ownership was not absolute.
• By the 6th century BCE in north India, the concept of private property in land had emerged and become entrenched by 300–600 CE. Law books from this period discuss possession, ownership, and legal title to land, and there are numerous inscriptions recording private land transactions, including purchases for donations to Brahmanas or religious institutions.
• In an earlier chapter, it was mentioned that in northern India, the concept of private property in land emerged around the 6th century BCE and became well established by approximately 300–600 CE. During this period, legal texts began to differentiate between possession, ownership, and legal title to property, particularly land. These texts outlined laws regarding the partition, sale, and mortgage of land. 
• There are literary references to various types of private land transactions that are supported by inscriptions. Many inscriptions document individuals purchasing land with the intention of donating it to Brahmanas or religious institutions. 
• The evidence of private property in land during this period is further strengthened by the distinction made in legal texts between different aspects of property rights. The law books of the time addressed issues such as possession, ownership, and legal title, indicating a developed understanding of property rights. 
• The references to private land transactions in literature and inscriptions, particularly those involving donations to Brahmanas or religious institutions, reflect the practice of private land ownership and the transfer of land for religious purposes. 
• Overall, the combination of legal texts, literary references, and inscriptions provides a coherent picture of private property in land during this period in northern India. 
• Private property in land emerged in northern India around the 6th century BCE and became well established by 300-600 CE. Legal texts from this period distinguish between possession, ownership, and legal title to property, particularly land. 
• These texts outline laws regarding the partition, sale, and mortgage of land. There are literary references to various types of private land transactions supported by inscriptions, with many documenting individuals purchasing land for donations to Brahmanas or religious institutions. 
• The legal texts reflect a developed understanding of property rights, addressing issues like possession, ownership, and legal title. The references to private land transactions indicate the practice of private land ownership and transfers for religious purposes. Overall, the evidence from legal texts, literature, and inscriptions presents a coherent picture of private property in land during this period in northern India. 
• The epigraphic evidence suggests that corporate or communal ownership of land was rare and belonged to an earlier period. While the village community may have had some influence in land-related matters, it did not equate to corporate or communal ownership. 
• From around 300 CE, both royal and private land ownership became more evident in literary and epigraphic records. The distinction in textual statements reflects different perspectives, but the epigraphic evidence indicates a shift in land ownership concepts. 
• By 300 CE, the king was recognized as the lord of all land, but not necessarily the legal owner. Private property in land existed under the theoretical framework of royal control, where the king's claims did not undermine individual private rights. 
• Some lands were directly controlled by the royal authority, while private ownership was predominant in areas outside of these royal tracts. This framework allowed for a coexistence of royal oversight and private land rights. 
• In ancient and early medieval India, the concept of land ownership was different from modern Western ideas. While private property in land was common, it existed under the theoretical notion of ultimate royal control. This meant that the king had a claim over all land, but this claim did not interfere with the rights of private individuals. Some land was directly controlled by the royal authority, but outside these areas, private ownership was the norm. 
• The idea of land ownership was not absolute; instead, there was a hierarchy of land rights. For example, historical records like the Ashrafpur plates from the 7th or 8th century CE in Bangladesh illustrate this concept. These plates mention a plot of land that was enjoyed by an individual named Sharvantara, cultivated by others, and donated by the king to a Buddhist monk named Sanghamitra. This indicates that land rights were complex and involved multiple parties. 

Property Rights in Dharmashastra

The Dharmashastra texts, including the Gautama Dharmasutra, Manu Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti, and Narada Smriti, provide detailed insights into property rights and ways of acquiring property in ancient India. Here’s a summary of their views:

• Ownership Rights: According to the Gautama Dharmasutra and Manu Smriti, ownership rights included the authority to sell, gift, and mortgage property.
• Ways of Acquiring Property: The texts outline various methods of acquiring property, such as inheritance, purchase, partition, acceptance, and finding. The Manu Smriti also mentions conquest, lending at interest, and accepting gifts as ways to acquire wealth.
• Immovable Property: The Brihaspati Smriti lists learning, purchase, mortgage, valour, marriage, inheritance, and succession to heirless kinsmen as ways to acquire immovable property.
• Wealth Distinctions: The Narada Smriti differentiates between types of wealth for different varnas (social classes) and identifies inheritance, love gifts, and gifts from the wife as common forms of wealth.

Types of Land, Land Measures, and Land Tenure

The Nitisara highlights cattle-rearing, farming, and trade as the main sources of livelihood for the Vaishya community. It emphasizes the king's responsibility to ensure that individuals skilled in these activities are not in need.
Types of Land: The Amarakosha identifies 12 different types of land, each with its own characteristics:

• Urvara: Fertile land.
• Ushara: Barren land.
• Maru: Desert land.
• Aprahata: Fallow or uncultivated land.
• Shadvala: Grassy land.
• Pankila: Muddy land.
• Jalaprayamanupam: Wet land.
• Kachcha: Land adjacent to water.
• Sharkara: Land full of pebbles and limestone.
• Sharkavati: Sandy land.
• Nadimatrika: Land watered by a river.
• Devamatrika: Land watered by rain.

Land Terminology: Inscriptions from ancient texts use specific terms to describe different types of land:

• Kshetra: Refers to a cultivated field.
• Khila: Untilled land or cultivable wasteland.
• Aprahata: Similar to Khila, meaning cultivable wasteland.
• Aprada: Unsettled land.
• Vastu: Habitat land.
• Pasture Land: Mentioned in texts as land designated for grazing animals.
• Agricultural Practices and Challenges: Ancient texts like the Amarakosha list various types of cereals, indicating the diversity of crops grown. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita discusses astrological signs associated with poor harvests and famines, reflecting the challenges faced by farmers.
• Waterworks: Texts mention different types of waterworks used for drinking water and irrigation, including wells, canals, tanks, and embankments. The Junagarh inscription suggests that the state played a role in building and maintaining some of these waterworks.
• Wasteland Reclamation: Several inscriptions, such as the Gunaigarh grant of Vainyagupta and various copper plates, refer to individuals applying for wasteland. The reasons for this trend are unclear but could be due to increasing pressure on arable land, the relative affordability of wasteland, or the availability of tax concessions for reclaiming such land.
• Several inscriptions, such as the Gunaigarh grant of Vainyagupta and the Damodarpur, Paharpur, and Baigram copper plates, mention potential donees applying for wasteland. However, it is unclear whether this was due to increasing pressure on arable land, the relative cheapness of such land, or the easy availability of tax concessions for reclaiming wasteland.

The texts and inscriptions from ancient India reveal a variety of land measurement terms, suggesting that there was no single standard set of measurements and that different regions had their own measures. Some of the land measures used in eastern India included:

• Adhavapa: 3/8 to 1/2 acre
• Dronavapa: 1 1/2 to 2 acres
• Kulyavapa: 12 to 16 acres
• Pataka: 60 to 80 acres
• Other terms included pravartavapa, padavarta, and bhumi. The use of various land measure terms indicates the absence of a uniform standard and the prevalence of different measures in different regions.
• The Brihaspati and Narada Smritis highlight the importance of clearly demarcating boundaries of landed property to prevent disputes. Inscriptions from the time suggest that boundaries were indeed marked using trenches, pillars, or natural features such as trees, tanks, and anthills. 
• The Brihaspati Smriti also recommends burying boundary markers made of dry cow dung, bones, charcoal, chaff, pottery pieces, bricks, cows’ tails, stones, cotton seeds, and ashes in pots at the boundaries. These markers were to be pointed out to children and young people, ensuring that the boundaries became part of common knowledge and were transmitted from one generation to the next.
•  The Brihaspati and Narada Smritis highlight the importance of clearly marking the boundaries of landed property to avoid disputes. Historical inscriptions indicate that boundaries were indeed demarcated, often using methods such as trenches, pillars, or natural features like trees, tanks, and anthills. 

 The Brihaspati Smriti suggests a unique practice for marking boundaries: 

• Items like dry cow dung, bones, charcoal, chaff, pottery pieces, bricks, cows’ tails, stones, cotton seeds, and ashes were to be placed in pots and buried at the boundary markers. 
• These markers were to be pointed out to children and young people, ensuring the knowledge of boundaries was passed down through generations. 
• This practice aimed to make property boundaries a shared and enduring part of the community’s knowledge, preventing future disputes. 

Technical Terms in Land Tenure:

• Inscriptions from this period contain various technical terms related to land tenure and the rights of donees over gifted land.
• Nivi-dharma: This term likely referred to the grant of permanent usufructory rights, allowing the donee to enjoy the fruits of the land.
• Akshaya-nivi and aprada-dharma: These terms indicated that the gift was inalienable, meaning it could not be given away, gifted, or sold.
• Nivi-dharma-kshaya: This term appears to have granted the donee full rights over the land, including the powers of transfer and sale.
• Bhumichhidranyaya: This term has been interpreted in different ways, but it generally emphasized the permanent and comprehensive rights over the land bestowed on the donees. Some scholars suggest it referred to non-agricultural land or land fit for cultivation.

Land Transactions and Prices:

• The absence of secular sale deeds from this period may be due to such records being maintained on perishable material rather than inscribed on stone or metal.
• However, there are inscriptions from eastern India documenting the purchase of land for pious donations, indicating the involvement of local governments in the process.
• The basic procedure for land purchase involved applying to local authorities, paying the prevailing price, and having the land inspected and demarcated by the local government.
• Prices for land could vary significantly within the same area, as seen in different inscriptions from Pundravardhana bhukti.

Royal Land Grants

The practice of granting land to Brahmanas by kings became more accepted over time, as seen in later Vedic texts. Initially, there was some hesitation in the early texts, but eventually, there was strong support for this practice. The Mahabharata, for example, encourages kings to give land to Brahmanas.

• Significance of Brahmanas: In the Danadharma section of the Mahabharata, Bhishma emphasizes the power of Brahmanas. He explains that they have the ability to make and unmake gods, and they play a crucial role in determining the fate of kings. A king can only stay in power if he has the support of Brahmanas.
• Types of Gifts: The Danadharma Parva mentions three important types of gifts: gold (hiranya-dana), cattle (go-dana), and land (prithvi-dana). Among these, the gift of land is considered the best because it is the source of valuable resources such as jewels, animals, and grain.
• Endorsement in Dharmashastra and Puranas: The practice of gifting land to Brahmanas is also praised in the Dharmashastra and Puranas. These texts promise that those who make appropriate gifts to deserving Brahmanas will gain fame in this life and happiness in the afterlife.
• Tax Exemptions and Privileges: The earliest evidence of tax exemptions and privileges for Brahmana settlements established by royal decree comes from the Arthashastra. The Dharmashastra includes Brahmanas among those exempt from taxes and praises royal gifts of land to them. However, it is in the Brihaspati Smriti that these two ideas are explicitly linked, stating that land gifted by kings to Brahmanas should be tax-free.
• The earliest evidence of tax exemptions and privileges for some Brahmana settlements established by royal decree comes from the Arthashastra. The Dharmashastra also includes Brahmanas among those exempt from taxes and praises royal gifts of land to them. However, it is in the Brihaspati Smriti that these two ideas are explicitly linked, stating that land gifted by kings to Brahmanas should be tax-free. 
• These references suggest that the prescriptive texts of the Brahmanical tradition, created and maintained by Brahmanas, viewed such gifts positively. The question arises whether these repeated injunctions reflected existing practices or aimed to promote them. Evidence from other sources, like the Pali canon of Buddhists mentioning kings such as Bimbisara of Magadha and Prasenajit of Kosala gifting land to Brahmanas, indicates a mix of both. 
• The earliest inscriptions documenting royal land grants, along with those associated with privileges and exemptions, are found in Naneghat and Nashik in the western Deccan. There was an increase in such grants from the 4th century, and by the 5th/6th century, kings across the Indian subcontinent were making these gifts, usually inscribed on copper plates. 
• Villages granted to Brahmanas were known as agraharas, brahmadeyas, or shasanas. A more neutral term for a Brahmana village, not indicating whether it resulted from a royal endowment, is bhatta-grama. While there are records of royal grants to other beneficiaries, such as Buddhist and Jaina monasteries, Vaishnava and Shaiva temples, and a few secular grants, the majority of royal land grants until about the 10th century CE were made to Brahmanas.Introduction to Land Grants
• The earliest inscriptions documenting royal land grants and grants with privileges and exemptions were discovered at Naneghat and Nashik in the western Deccan.
• There was a notable increase in such grants starting from the 4th century. By the 5th and 6th centuries, kings across the Indian subcontinent were making these grants, typically inscribed on copper plates.
• Villages granted to Brahmanas were referred to as agraharas, brahmadeyas, or shasanas. A more neutral term for these villages is bhatta-grama.
• While there are records of royal grants to various beneficiaries, including Buddhist and Jaina monasteries, Vaishnava and Shaiva temples, and secular grants, the majority of royal land grants were made to Brahmanas until around the 10th century CE.

The Role of Imperial Guptas

• The imperial Guptas were not significantly involved in the proliferation of land grants during this period.
• The only genuine inscription recording a land grant by a Gupta king is the Bhitari stone pillar inscription of Skandagupta, which details the gift of a village to a Vishnu temple without specific terms for the gift.
• There are also the questionable Gaya and Nalanda copper plates attributed to Samudragupta.
• The Gaya plate mentions the grant of Revatika village to a Brahmana named Gopasvamin, while the Nalanda plate records the gift of Bhadrapushkaraka and Purnanaga villages to a Brahmana named Jayabhattasvami.
• Both grants included the due known as uparikara and specified tax obligations for the villagers.

Controversies Surrounding Gaya and Nalanda Plates

• Some scholars consider the Gaya and Nalanda inscriptions to be spurious due to certain spelling errors, ungrammatical portions, and the epithets used for Samudragupta.
• It has been suggested that these plates might be later copies of genuine grants.
• However, researchers like Chhabra and Gai argue that the palaeography of the Gaya plates dates to the early 8th century, while the Nalanda plates belong to the Gupta period.
• They contend that grammatical lapses in inscriptions, especially in long compound words, do not necessarily indicate forgery.
• While the palaeography of the Gaya plates is dated to the early 8th century, the palaeography of the Nalanda plates is confirmed to belong to the Gupta period. They also point out that grammatical errors are present in many inscriptions, particularly in long compound words, and this should not be a reason to consider an inscription as a forgery.
• The Bihar stone inscription, likely from the reign of Budhagupta or Purugupta, documents the erection of a sacrificial post (yupa ) by a minister who was also the brother-in-law of King Kumaragupta. This minister constructed temples dedicated to the god Skanda and the Sapta-Matrikas (the seven Divine Mothers). The inscription mentions the donation of shares in two villages, presumably for the upkeep of these temples. The inscription is incomplete, and any specific terms of the gift have been lost over time.
• During the Gupta period, land donations to Brahmanas were not prominent, whereas the Vakatakas were significant donors. Vakataka inscriptions record a total of 35 gifted villages, with many gifts made during the reign of Pravarasena II, who issued 18 or 19 inscriptions documenting the gift of 20 villages. 
• These grants included a variety of technical terms outlining the exemptions and privileges associated with the gifted land and the donees. The area of land granted varied from 20 to 8000 nivartanas, and there were instances of villages being donated in exchange for previous gifts, such as the renewal of an earlier grant in the Yavatmal plates of Pravarasena II. 
• There was a noticeable shift in the location of gifted villages from the eastern to the western part of the Vakataka kingdom, especially to the Tapi valley, starting from the time of Pravarasena II. Subordinate rulers of the Guptas and Vakatakas also made land grants, including the Parivrajaka maharajas in the Baghelkhand area under Gupta suzerainty and Bharatabala, a Vataka subordinate in the Mekala country.
• The Vakataka dynasty, particularly during the reign of Pravarasena II, was known for its generous land grants to Brahmanas. Inscriptions from this period mention the gifting of 35 villages, with Pravarasena II’s inscriptions alone recording the donation of 20 villages. These grants included a variety of technical terms outlining the exemptions and privileges associated with the gifted land. 
• Land areas mentioned in the grants varied from 20 to 8000 nivartanas, a royal measure. There were instances of villages being donated in exchange for previous gifts, such as the renewal of earlier grants as seen in the Yavatmal plates of Pravarasena II. 
• Over time, there was a shift in the location of these gifted villages from the eastern to the western part of the Vakataka kingdom, notably to the Tapi valley. 
• Subordinate rulers under the Guptas and Vakatakas also made land grants. For example, the Parivrajaka maharajas in Baghelkhand, under Gupta suzerainty, and Bharatabala in Mekala country, under Vakataka rule, issued their own land grants. 

Patterns of Urban History

Urban History of the Indian Subcontinent

R. S. Sharma (1987) conducted a detailed study on the urban history of the Indian subcontinent, suggesting that early historical urbanism peaked between approximately 200 BCE and 300 CE. Following this peak, Sharma identified two distinct phases of urban decline:

• The first phase occurred in the late 3rd century or 4th century CE.
• The second phase of decline took place after the 6th century CE.

According to Sharma, archaeological evidence across the subcontinent indicates a widespread phenomenon of urban decline during these periods. He noted a decrease in references to artisans and merchants in inscriptions, which further supports the idea of urban decay. While Sharma acknowledged that literary evidence for urban decline is not robust, he cited several texts to illustrate the decline:

• Varahamihira's Brihatsamhita: A prophecy predicting the destruction or decline of various towns.
• Valmiki Ramayana: A description of Ayodhya's decline after Rama's exile.
• Kalidasa's Raghuvamsha: A depiction of the city's desolation.

Sharma attributed urban decay to a decline in long-distance trade and suggested that this period of decline lasted for at least seven centuries. He observed a mild urban renewal in some parts of the subcontinent during the 11th century, and by the 14th century, urbanism emerged as a recognizable process.

Vakataka Kingdom

Focusing on the Vakataka kingdom, Shrimali (1987) argued for a decline in trade, traders, and the urban economy during this period. He interpreted inscriptions from the Vakataka period as reflecting a non-monetary, small-scale village economy characterized by:

• An expansion of rural settlements.
• A contraction of urbanism.
• An early onset of feudalism.

Decline in Trade and Urban Economy

The Vakataka kingdom experienced a decline in trade, traders, and the urban economy. Inscriptions from this period suggest a non-monetary, small-scale village economy.

• There was an expansion of rural settlements, a contraction of urban areas, and an early onset of feudalism.
• Inscriptions rarely mention urban centres, which is expected since they are grants of rural land.
• Only about 16 settlements can be identified as having some urban characteristics based on suffixes like ‘pura’, ‘puraka’, and ‘nagara’.

Questioning Urban Decay Hypothesis

The hypothesis of subcontinental urban decay during c. 300–600 CE can be questioned for several reasons:

• Contemporary texts contain lengthy, poetic descriptions of cities and city dwellers, reflecting an awareness of flourishing urban centres, even if not taken literally.
• The Brihatsamhita mentions the opulence of kings and courts, while the Mrichchhakatika describes the lavish house of Vasantasena in Ujjayini.
• The Amarakosha lists various ornaments and clothing items, and the Kamasutra depicts the urban lifestyle of the nagaraka.
• The production of diverse literature and architectural and sculptural works from this period indicates an urban milieu and sources of urban patronage.

Urbanism in the Far South

The Tamil epics provide vivid descriptions of urban life in the far south, indicating that urbanism was an ongoing process.

• The Silappadikaram depicts the bustling markets of Puhar and Madurai, with various sellers and skilled workers.
• Puhar is described as having two parts: the residential area (pattinappakkam or akanagar) and the coastal port area (maruvurpakkam).
• The residential area included rich houses, feeding houses, gardens, meeting places, tanks, public baths, and temples, while cemeteries and burial grounds were located outside the city.
• The epics also mention Hindu temples and Buddhist and Jaina establishments in these cities, such as a vihara and chaitya at Vanji, as noted in the Manimekalai.

Urban Life in Tamil Epics

The Tamil epics provide detailed and vibrant descriptions of cities and urban life in ancient Tamil Nadu, indicating that urban development was a continuous process in the far south. The Silappadikaram depicts the bustling markets of Puhar and Madurai, highlighting a variety of sellers and skilled workers.

Puhar is described as having two distinct areas:

• Pattinappakkam or Akanagar (residential area)
• Maruvurpakkam (coastal port area)

The residential area of Puhar included houses of wealthy individuals, feeding houses, gardens, meeting places, tanks, public baths, and temples. The cemetery and burial grounds were located outside the city.

The epics also mention the presence of Hindu temples, as well as Buddhist and Jaina establishments in these cities. For instance, the Manimekalai references a vihara and chaitya at Vanji, showcasing the religious diversity and architectural significance of urban centers during that period.

Craft Production, Guilds, and Trade

Inscriptions and seals from the past indicate a vibrant urban environment with skilled artisans, traders, and various occupational groups. The Vakataka inscriptions, in particular, provide evidence of the flourishing craft and trade scene during that time.

• The Indore plates of Pravarasena II mention a merchant named Chandra, who made significant contributions to the community by donating land to Brahmanas.
• The Chammak copper plates of Pravarasena II refer to the village of Charmanka, possibly inhabited by leather workers.
• The Thalner copper plates highlight the presence of villages associated with metalworking, such as Kamsakaraka and Suvarnakara, indicating the existence of bronze workers and goldsmiths.
• Artisans in various fields, including metalworking, pottery, terracotta, and wood carving, were prevalent, showcasing a high level of craftsmanship.
• The Ajanta paintings provide visual evidence of the architectural and artistic skills of the time, depicting elaborate royal palaces and mansions of the wealthy.

Metalworking and Crafts

• The Kamasutra lists metalworking as one of the 64 arts, highlighting its significance in ancient society.
• Various metals, including gold, silver, iron, copper, brass, and lead, were commonly used by metalworkers, as mentioned in texts like the Amarakosha and the Brihaspati Smriti.
• The iron pillar at Mehrauli stands as a testament to the advanced metallurgical skills of the time, reflecting the craftsmanship involved in creating iron objects.
• Other specialized crafts included coin casting, metal engraving,pottery making, terracotta work, and wood carving, showcasing the diversity of skills among artisans.
• The presence of architects, builders, stone masons, sculptors, mural painters, and laborers is evident from artistic remains, indicating a well-developed workforce involved in construction and artistic endeavors.

Textiles, Garments, and Ornaments 

• The Amarakosha mentions various aspects of cotton textiles, including weavers, looms, thread, and different types of fabric, indicating the importance of textile production.
• Evidence of stitched clothing can be seen in early Indian sculpture, while the Ajanta paintings depict intricate garments, suggesting the presence of skilled tailors and embroiderers.
• Ornaments made from precious and semi-precious stones, as well as materials like coral and conch shell, were popular, as described in literature and depicted in sculptures and paintings.
• The Brihatsamhita by Varahamihira discusses the qualities of gemstones such as diamonds, rubies, and pearls, reflecting the value placed on these materials.
• The Kamasutra and kavya literature provide insights into the lives of urban dwellers, suggesting the existence of garland makers and producers of cosmetics, unguents, and perfumes.

Textiles and Ornaments in Early India

Textiles

•  The Amarakosha mentions various aspects of cotton textiles, including weavers, looms, thread, and different types of fabrics like coarse and fine. 
•  Evidence from early Indian sculpture and Ajanta paintings suggests the presence of stitched clothes and skilled tailors and embroiderers in ancient India. 

Ornaments

•  Literature and art from this period depict beautiful ornaments made from various precious and semi-precious stones, such as diamonds, rubies, and pearls. 
•  The Amarakosha and texts like Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita provide detailed descriptions of these stones and their qualities. 
•  Ornaments were also crafted from materials like coral and conch shell. 
•  The Kamasutra and kavya literature suggest the existence of artisans such as garland makers and cosmetic and perfume makers. 

Guilds and Migration

•  The Mandasor inscription highlights the migration and activities of a prosperous guild of silk weavers, emphasizing the importance of silk in enhancing beauty. 
•  The Indore copper plate from the time of Skandagupta indicates the migration of craft guilds, such as the guild of oil men. 

Dharmashastra and Trade

• Dharmashastra texts provide insights into partnerships in craft production and trade, as well as the apprenticeship of novices with master craftsmen. 
•  The Faridpur plate of Gopachandra refers to big traders (pradhana-vyaparinah) and outlines rules for various aspects of business activities, including hiring conveyance and protecting the interests of traders and consumers.