Ajivika and Charvaka School | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Philosophical Systems in Ancient India: A Brief Overview

Ancient Indian philosophical systems largely promoted idealistic views of life, offering paths to salvation. However, the Samkhya and Vaisheshika systems put forth materialistic perspectives. Kapila, the founder of Samkhya, argued that a person's life is influenced by natural forces rather than divine intervention. Materialistic concepts were also present in the beliefs of the Ajivikas, a sect during the time of the Buddha. Charvaka was the principal proponent of materialistic philosophy, known as Lokayata, which signifies ideas rooted in common people's experiences.

Ajivika Sects

• The Ajivika sect is considered ancient, with references to predecessors of Makkhali Gosala, its prominent leader, dating back to the 5th century BCE. Buddhist tradition associates Ajivika doctrines with figures like Purana Kassapa and Pakudha Kachchayana.
• Ajivika is classified as a nastika or "heterodox" school of Indian philosophy. It was part of the sramaṇa movement and was a significant competitor to early Buddhism and Jainism.
• Scattered references to the Ajivika sect exist, with Jaina and Buddhist traditions providing accounts of Makkhali Gosala's birth and parentage. However, these accounts may lack historical accuracy and appear to aim at etymologizing his name and attributing a low social origin to him.

Ajivika Philosophy of Niyati

• A core concept in Ajivika thought is niyati(fate), which posits that everything is ultimately determined and controlled by this principle. In this strictly deterministic belief, human effort is deemed insignificant.
• Ajivika philosophy denies the existence of free will, asserting that all past, present, and future events are preordained and governed by cosmic principles. The concept of karma is viewed as a fallacy.
• While acknowledging karma and transmigration, Ajivikas believed that human effort had no role in these processes. The paths of souls over millennia were considered predetermined.
• Unlike other groups that believed individuals could improve their lot during transmigration, Ajivikas maintained that the universe's affairs were orchestrated by a cosmic force called Niyati(destiny), which dictated all events, including individual fates, in meticulous detail. This belief eliminated the possibility of altering or hastening one's spiritual destiny through personal efforts.
• Due to this static and somber perspective on the human condition, Ajivikas engaged in austerities rather than pursuing purposeful goals.
• Ajivikas rejected the authority of the Vedas, yet they shared with Hinduism and Jainism the belief in the presence of an atman in every living being.
• Ajivika metaphysics encompassed a theory of atoms akin to the Vaisheshika school, where everything is composed of atoms. However, the aggregation and nature of these atoms were predetermined by cosmic forces.
• Ajivikas organized regular gatherings in places known as sabhas for meetings and significant ceremonies, indicating a corporate structure.
• They possessed canonical texts, and excerpts or paraphrases from these texts are found in Buddhist and Jaina literature.
• Ajivikas practiced severe asceticism, often consuming minimal food, although Buddhists accused them of secretive eating.
• While they practiced ahimsa(non-injury, non-violence), it was not as strict as among Jainas, as the Bhagavati Sutra mentions their occasional consumption of meat.
• Complete nudity was part of their practice, and Jaina texts criticize them for not adhering to celibacy.
• The Ajivika sect did not discriminate based on caste or class, and its ascetics and laity came from various societal segments.
• Some members, like a relative of King Bimbisara, were Kshatriyas, while ascetic Panduputta was the son of a wagon-maker, a low-status profession.
• Makkhali Gosala operated from the workshop of a woman potter Halahala in Shravasti.

Patrons:

• Prasenajit, the king of Kosala, was a supporter of the Ajivika order. In the nearby Nagarjuni hills, inscriptions record the dedication of three caves to Ajivikas by Dasharatha, Ashoka’s successor.
• Besides royalty, urban and trading groups were significant among the laity.
• Buddhist and Jaina texts criticize the Ajivikas, indicating they were seen as worthy competitors. In the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha describes Makkhali Gosala as a foolish man who caused sorrow to gods and men, considering his doctrine the most dangerous of samana doctrines.
• Jaina texts also reflect intense rivalry with the Ajivikas, with the Bhagavati Sutra depicting a violent dispute between Makkhali Gosala and Mahavira.
• The Ajivika sect remained influential in later centuries. The Mahavamsa suggests its reach extended to Sri Lanka. The Divyavadana narrates the story of an Ajivika fortune-teller in Bindusara's court, predicting Ashoka's future greatness.
• Inscriptions in the Barabar hills record Ashoka's dedication of caves to Ajivika ascetics.
• In the nearby Nagarjuni hills, records show the dedication of three caves to Ajivikas by Dasharatha.
• Ashoka's seventh pillar edict instructs officers known as dhammamahamatas to engage in the affairs of sects, including the Ajivikas.
• The Ajivika sect, particularly during the Maurya period, was significant, with its influence noted in various sources until the early medieval period.
• Ajivika philosophy, alongside Charvaka philosophy, resonated with the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of ancient Indian society.
• Ajivika reached its peak under Bindusara around the 4th century BCE, declined thereafter, but persisted for nearly 2,000 years until the 14th century CE in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
• Despite its decline, Ajivika philosophy continued to appeal to various segments of ancient Indian society, particularly the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes.

Charvaka Philosophy of Materialism

• The Charvaka school was a philosophical movement in India that rejected the traditional religious order by challenging the authority of the Vedas as well as the hegemony the Brahman priests. This school is considered part of the heterodox systems of Indian philosophy, and it is also known as Lokayata, which means “Worldly”. It underlined the importance of intimate contact with the world (loka), and showed a lack of belief in the other world. Many teachings are attributed to Charvaka.
• The Charvaka school started to develop around the 7th century BCE, during the time when the culture of world renunciation emerged in India. Buddhist scriptures occasionally mention the Charvaka as part of the wandering religious groups known as sramanas. Before the time of the Charvaka school there were other materialistic schools in India, but none of them managed to systematize their teachings like the Charvaka did. The most prominent member of this school during the time of the Buddha was a man named Ajita Kesakambali, whose ideas are summarized in a Buddhist Pali text known as Samannaphala Sutta, where he denies the doctrine of transmigration of the soul. The earliest texts of the Charvaka were written around the 6th century BCE, but unfortunately they have been lost.
• From what we can piece together, mainly through later works, these thinkers believed in a rigid materialistic perspective in which only things that could be perceived directly were thought to exist. The members of this school did not believe in ideas such as the soul, reincarnation, spirits, or gods. Religion, they said, is nothing but a fraud devised by clever men who want to take advantage of others. Soul or consciousness can be explained in natural terms as a side effect of having a healthy body: When the body dies, consciousness simply disappears. No existence other than the physical body exists for the Charvaka.
• The attitude towards human conduct in the Charvaka school was a very flexible one: Right or wrong were seen as merely human conventions. The cosmos, they believed, was indifferent to human behaviour.

Some of the key principles of this doctrine of materialism were:

Charvaka theory of knowledge:

• Accepted sensory perception as the only source of knowledge.
• Accepted the existence/reality of only those things that could be experienced by human senses and organs.
• This implied a clear lack of faith in the existence of brahma and god.
• Rejected the role of inference, verbal testimony, comparison etc. in providing authentic knowledge to a person.
• Idea that only what is perceptible by the senses is true is the guiding principle behind their philosophy.

Charvaka Metaphysics:

• Rejected the existence of all transcendental entities like soul,God, incarnation, law of karma, rebirth etc. (as per doctrine of sense perception)
• Opposed the quest for spiritual salvation.
• Deny the existence of any divine or supernatural agency.

Rejection of God:

• God has been rejected as he cannot be perceived by the senses.
• The dilemma that arises in this respect is that if there is no God then who created the universe? The Charvakas have accepted the universe to be made from the four basic elements of air, water, fire and earth. Thus the world’s existence is purely mechanical.

Rejection of soul:

• Similar to God, soul also does not exist as it cannot be perceived.
• A question that arises here is that then how are we supposed to explain consciousness? Charvakas reply that consciousness is a property of the body which arises due to the mixture of the basic elements in a fixed proportion.
• Just like the mixture of areca nut, lime and betel gives rise to red color on being chewed, these elements also give rise to consciousness when mixed in the right proportion.
• When the body dies, consciousness simply disappears.
• No existence other than the physical body exists for the Charvaka.

Rejection of religion:

• For Charvaka, religion is nothing but a fraud devised by clever men who want to take advantage of others.
• Providing a good living for the priests is a sufficient explanation for the practice of religion.
• According to Charvaka, the brahmanas manufactured rituals in order to acquire gifts (dakshina).

Charvaka Ethics

• Since there is no soul, there can be no case for liberation.
• Charvakas believe in the present life and their dictum is to live this life fully.
• They promote egoistic hedonism,i.e.- pleasure for one’s own self.
• Of the four purusharthas mentioned in Indian scriptures-dharma, artha, kama and moksha; the Charvakas have accepted only Kama and Artha.
• Heaven and hell are nothing but inventions. The only goal of humans is to enjoy pleasures and avoid pain.
• To discredit Charvaka, his opponents highlight only one of his teachings. According to it, a person should enjoy himself as long as he lives; he should borrow to eat well (that is, take ghee).
• However, Charvaka’s real contribution lies in his materialistic outlook. He denies the operation of divine and supernatural agencies and makes man the centre of all activities.
• The attitude towards human conduct in the Charvaka school was a very flexible one: Right or wrong were seen as merely human conventions. The cosmos, they believed, was indifferent to human behaviour.

Conclusion

• The schools of philosophy with emphasis on materialism developed in the period of an expanding economy and society between 500 BC and AD 300.
• The struggle against the difficulties presented by nature in founding settlements and leading day-to-day life in the Gangetic plains and elsewhere led to the origin and growth of iron-based agricultural technology, the use of metal money, and the thriving of trade and handicrafts.
• The new environment gave rise to a scientific and materialistic outlook which was principally reflected in Charvaka’s philosophy and also figured in that of several traditional schools.
• By the fifth century AD, materialistic philosophy was overshadowed by the exponents of idealistic philosophy who constantly criticized it and recommended the performance of rituals and cultivation of spiritualism as a path to salvation; they attributed worldly phenomena to supernatural forces.
• This view hindered the progress of scientific inquiry and rational thinking. Even the enlightened found it difficult to question the privileges of the priests and warriors.
• Steeped in the idealistic and salvation schools of philosophy, the people could resign themselves to the inequities of the varna-based social system and the strong authority of the state represented by the king.