Akbar: Conquests and consolidation of empire | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Conflicts with the Afghans—Second Battle of Panipat

• After Humayun returned to Delhi in 1555, the Mughal Empire faced strong challenges from the Afghans.
• Even after defeating a larger Afghan force led by Sikandar Sur at Sirhind in 1554, the Mughals had to deal with powerful Afghan leaders like Adali in Bihar and east U.P.,Muhammad Khan Sur in Bengal, and a large Afghan force near Jaunpur.
• Hemu, a general for Adali, became a significant threat after Humayun's death, capturing key regions and advancing towards Delhi.
• Hemu's rise from a trader to a powerful military leader involved winning many battles for Adali. Despite his success, he was not seen as a leader of a Hindu resurgence.
• After defeating Tardi Beg in Delhi, Hemu considered claiming sovereignty, adopting the title Bikramjit, but he was not an independent king.
• Hemu's army was mostly Afghan, and his defeat at the second battle of Panipat on November 5, 1556, was due to internal discontent among his troops, his neglect of artillery, and over-reliance on elephants.
• Hemu was severely wounded in battle, leading to the collapse of his army. His defeat did not end the Afghan threat, which persisted even after his death.
• The Mughals faced ongoing Afghan resistance, with strongholds in places like Chunar and Rohtas. Despite these challenges, the Mughal Empire gradually secured its power in the region.

Struggle With the Nobility

Bairam Khan’s Regency

Birth and Early Life:

• Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar was born on October 15, 1542, in Amarkot, during a turbulent period when his father, Humayun, was fleeing from Bikaner.
• When Akbar was just one year old, his father had to abandon him and escape to Iran due to threats from Kamran, Humayun's brother. Akbar was taken care of by Kamran for two years.
• After Humayun regained Kabul with Iranian help and later lost it to Kamran, Kamran cruelly exposed young Akbar to artillery fire from his father. Fortunately, Akbar was unharmed.

Education and Interests:

• Following this incident, Akbar was assigned several tutors to educate him as a young prince. However, he was more interested in activities like hunting,riding, and pigeon-flying than in his studies, to the point where he never learned to write.
• While Akbar was at Kalanaur campaigning against Sikandar Sur, he received the news of his father’s death in Delhi. The nobles gathered and crowned Akbar as the emperor in 1556.

Accession to the Throne:

• After Akbar’s coronation,Bairam Khan, who had been appointed as Akbar’s tutor by Humayun, became the wakil mutlaq, responsible for all political and financial matters.
• At this time, the Mughal position was unstable, with much factionalism and demoralization among the nobility, making Bairam’s strong position uncontested.
• Bairam Khan took decisive actions, such as executing Tardi Beg for his cowardice in evacuating Delhi, to establish control.

Bairam Khan’s Regency (1556-1560):

• During his four-year regency, Bairam Khan achieved notable successes, including extending the kingdom from Kabul to Jaunpur in the east and Ajmer in the west.
• He captured the fort of Gwalior, sent expeditions to conquer Malwa, and attempted to seize Ranthambhor, though this last effort was abandoned after Bairam’s downfall.

Challenges and Rivalries:

• Bairam Khan faced challenges from the nobility, especially from Maham Anaga, Akbar’s foster-mother, and other foster relatives, who were jealous of his power.
• These factions tried to create a rift between Akbar and Bairam, especially after Akbar’s mother and other women relatives joined him at Agra.

Downfall of Bairam Khan:

• Bairam Khan’s downfall came when Akbar, growing in power and wanting to assert his authority, was influenced by those close to him to remove Bairam.
• Despite Bairam’s initial submission, he rebelled and fled, but was eventually defeated and submitted again.
• Akbar offered Bairam a generous reward, but Bairam chose to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he was assassinated.

Aftermath:

• After Bairam Khan’s death, Akbar married Bairam’s widow, Salima, and raised her son, Abdur Rahim, who later became a prominent noble.

Struggle for Wikalat, Revolt of Uzbek Nobles and Others

• The downfall of Bairam Khan led to increased factionalism among the nobility.
• Powerful nobles began to act independently, disregarding imperial wishes.
• The prestigious post of wakil, combining financial, military, and administrative powers, became a point of struggle.
• Contenders for the post included Maham Anaga and Shamsuddin Khan.

Appointment of Munim Khan:

• After some deliberation, Akbar appointed Munim Khan, a close associate of Humayun, as wakil.
• Munim Khan worked closely with Maham Anaga, increasing her influence.
• Historians consider this period (March 1560 to September 1561) as the height of Maham Anaga’s power.

Akbar's Authority and Actions:

• Despite Maham Anaga’s influence, Akbar’s wishes were paramount.
• In early 1561, Akbar intervened when Maham’s son,Adham Khan, misappropriated spoils of war.
• Akbar also dealt with Ali Quli Khan Zaman, forcing him to return treasures accumulated during campaigns.

Changes in the Wakil Position:

• In November 1561,Atka Khan was appointed as wakil, leading to increased factional conflict.
• Adham Khan murdered Atka Khan in June 1562, prompting Akbar’s wrath.
• Akbar punished Adham Khan severely, marking the decline of Maham Anaga’s influence.

Strengthening Central Control:

• After Atka Khan’s murder,Munim Khan was reinstated as wakil.
• Akbar took steps to strengthen central control over the nobility.
• He ordered inquiries into revenue arrears and separated executive and revenue responsibilities of jagirdars.

Conflict with Uzbek Nobles:

• Leading Uzbek nobles, including Ali Quli Khan Zaman and Khan-i-Zaman, showed signs of independence.
• Abdullah Khan Uzbek fled to Gujarat, prompting Akbar’s distrust of the Uzbeks.
• Akbar faced rebellion from the Uzbeks, who proclaimed Mirza Hakim as king.

Military and Diplomatic Measures:

• Akbar took military and diplomatic measures to isolate the Uzbeks, including alliances with regional rulers.
• He made Jaunpur his headquarters and focused on defeating the Uzbeks.
• Operations against the Uzbeks lasted two years, with Akbar eventually pardoning the Uzbek leaders.

Rebellion of Mirza Hakim:

• Mirza Hakim, Akbar’s half-brother, briefly posed a threat by capturing Lahore.
• Akbar’s forces defeated Mirza Hakim, solidifying Akbar’s power.
• Akbar’s victory over the Uzbeks and Mirza Hakim marked a significant consolidation of his authority.

Rebellions and Centralization:

• Rebellions during this period were primarily led by Turani nobles.
• Akbar’s centralization efforts led to the induction of more Irani nobles and Indian Muslims into the nobility.
• The period marked the decline of old noble families and the rise of new ones loyal to Akbar.

Early Expansion of the Empire (1560-76)

• During a short span of about 15 years, the Mughal Empire expanded from the upper Ganga valley to include Malwa,Gondwana,Rajasthan,Gujarat,Bihar, and Bengal.
• Akbar played a crucial role in these conquests due to his strong energy, initiative, perseverance, and leadership. His ability to be present at critical moments, often making long marches, contributed significantly to his success.
• Akbar's achievements were also thanks to the rise of capable and dedicated individuals. He had a keen eye for talent and was willing to promote individuals from humble backgrounds, making the government more open to talent than ever before.

Malwa

• The Mughal expansion began with the conquest of Malwa in 1561, gaining momentum after the defeat of the Uzbek rebellion in 1567.
• Akbar justified the conquest of Malwa by claiming it had once belonged to his father,Humayun.
• Malwa was ruled by Baz Bahadur, a former governor under Sher Shah, who rebelled with the rise of Adali. Baz Bahadur was a skilled warrior, known for defeating his brothers and attempting to expand his rule into Gondwana.
• Baz Bahadur was also a musician and poet, famously writing poems for his companion,Rupmati.
• Nizamuddin Ahmad, Akbar’s officer, justified the Mughal attack by claiming Baz Bahadur engaged in unlawful practices and neglected his kingdom, leading to the suffering of the people.
• The Mughal invasion was portrayed as a liberation of the people from tyranny.
• The invasion of Malwa by Adham Khan and Pir Muhammad Khan in 1561 was marked by cruelty, with Adham Khan killing prisoners indiscriminately and taking women, including Rupmati, as captives.
• Akbar intervened not to punish the perpetrators but to claim his share of the loot.
• After initially losing Malwa, Baz Bahadur briefly regained control before fleeing again and eventually becoming a mansabdar under Akbar due to his musical talent.

Garh-Katanga

• After expanding the empire to include Malwa, Asaf Khan, the governor of Kara (Allahabad), aimed to gain treasure and territory from Garh-Katanga (modern Gondwana).
• Garh-Katanga, covering about 48,000 square miles and comprising many forts, cities, towns, and around 70,000 inhabited villages, had been gradually built up during the 15th century by over-running and subordinating various rajas in the region.
• Named after the towns of Garh and Katangi in the modern district of Jabalpur, the region was predominantly inhabited by Gonds, leading to its alternate name, Gondwana.
• For the past sixteen years, Garh-Katanga had been ruled by Rani Durgavati, a skilled and beautiful leader. The daughter of Raja Shalivahan of Mahoba, Rani Durgavati had taken over the reins of power after her husband’s death, managing the kingdom with the help of competent advisors.
• Despite being remote, Garh-Katanga faced pressures from Mughal conquests in Malwa and suzerainty over Bhata, making the kingdom vulnerable to attacks from both sides.

The Struggle for Survival:

• Rani Durgavati attempted to negotiate peace with Akbar, but the talks failed, likely due to Akbar’s demands for submission and territorial cession.
• Asaf Khan, having learned of the Rani’s wealth and the state of her affairs through spies, launched an attack on Garh-Katanga in 1564.
• Initially, Rani Durgavati was unable to muster her full strength, leading to a small force of about 2,000 to oppose Asaf Khan’s 10,000 troops.
• Despite her skilled leadership and initial advantages in battle, Rani Durgavati was eventually defeated near Damoh as Asaf Khan’s forces grew to 50,000, bolstered by defectors from her ranks.

A Gallant End:

• Wounded and facing capture, Rani Durgavati chose to end her life rather than face dishonor, marking the death of a valiant woman-warrior and ruler.
• Asaf Khan then advanced to the capital Chauragarh, which was defended by Rani Durgavati’s son, Bir Narayan, after the women of the fort performed jauhar.
• Asaf Khan acquired immense wealth, including gold, silver, jewels, and 1,000 elephants.
• Kamla Devi, the younger sister of Durgavati, was sent to the Imperial haram, while Asaf Khan kept most of the treasures for himself, sending only 200 elephants to Akbar.

Aftermath and Akbar’s Response:

• Despite the conquest of Gondwana adding to royal territories, Asaf Khan’s actions turned his head, similar to Adham Khan in Malwa.
• Akbar, angered by Asaf Khan’s greed but preoccupied with the Uzbek rebellion, initially kept quiet.
• When faced with accountability, Asaf Khan fled, seeking refuge with the Uzbeks before returning to Gondwana, where he was pursued.
• Eventually, he submitted, and Akbar restored him to his previous position, acknowledging merit over class.
• Akbar chose not to hold onto Garh-Katanga, recalling Asaf Khan in 1567 and restoring the territory to Chandra Shah, the brother of Rani Durgavati’s deceased husband, after taking ten forts to complete the subah of Malwa.

Rajasthan

• The Mughal occupation of Rajasthan was driven by strategic necessity rather than a desire for territory or wealth.
• Control over Rajasthan was crucial for securing routes to Gujarat and Malwa, as well as for maintaining stability in the upper Ganga basin.
• In 1556, the Mughals established rule over parts of Mewat, followed by Ajmer and Nagor.
• Raja Bhara Mal of Amber submitted to the Mughals in 1562, paving the way for further occupation.
• The Mughals captured the fort of Merta and briefly occupied Jodhpur during a succession dispute after the death of Rao Maldeo.
• Akbar focused on Rajasthan after quelling the Uzbek rebellion, with Mewar being the most powerful kingdom.
• The Rana of Mewar, Udai Singh, resisted Mughal suzerainty despite offers of support to his enemies.
• The siege of Chittor was marked by fierce resistance, with the Rajputs employing sabats and mines to defend the fort.
• After a four-month siege, Akbar ordered a massacre following the Rajput jauhar and the death of their leader Jaimal.
• The fall of Chittor in March 1568 was followed by the capture of Ranthambhor and Kalinjar, and the acceptance of Mughal suzerainty by Marwar, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer.
• Mewar remained independent, upholding regional autonomy.

Gujarat

• After dealing with the Rajputs, Akbar focused on Gujarat, which was in chaos after the death of Bahadur Shah. The region was plagued by succession disputes, with nobles trying to place their own nominees on the throne.
• The Mirzas had captured Broach,Baroda, and Surat, causing further unrest. The Portuguese were also looking to expand their control over Gujarat.
• Gujarat was strategically important and rich in handicrafts and agricultural products, making it essential for Akbar to restore order.
• Itimad Khan Habshi, the ruler of Ahmadabad, invited Akbar to intervene and restore peace in the region.
• In late 1572, Akbar marched into Gujarat with a large army, supported by Habshi and local nobles. He faced little opposition in Ahmadabad but needed to expel the Mirzas from south Gujarat.
• Akbar showed great bravery by attacking a strong detachment of Ibrahim Hussain Mirza with just forty men. He won the battle but couldn’t capture the Mirza.
• He laid siege to the fort of Surat in early 1573, forcing it to surrender. This victory encouraged many local rajas to submit to Akbar.
• The Portuguese came to offer gifts to Akbar. During this time, Akbar saw the Sea of Oman(Arabian Sea) for the first time and enjoyed a pleasure trip on the water.
• After the success at Surat, Akbar appointed Khan-i-Azam Aziz Koka as the governor of Gujarat and placed nobles in charge of various districts. He then returned to Agra to address issues in the east.
• Aziz Koka faced a situation similar to that of Humayun, with various factions rising against Mughal rule. However, unlike Humayun, Koka held Ahmadabad.
• Akbar postponed his eastern expedition and personally intervened, reaching Ahmadabad quickly with about 3000 troops.
• His presence demoralized the opposition, leading to a significant victory and establishing Mughal control over Gujarat in 1573, though some resistance continued for a while.

Bengal

• After conquering Gujarat, Akbar focused on Bengal and Bihar.
• Bengal was ruled by Sulaiman Karrani, who had strong ties in Bihar.
• The city of Patna, founded by Sher Shah, and Hajipur were under Karrani's control.
• Akbar aimed to conquer Bengal and Bihar due to Karrani's growing power and independence.
• Karrani declared independence with a large army and issued khutba and sikka in his name.
• Initially,Munim Khan, the governor of Jaunpur, was tasked with the campaign.
• Munim Khan besieged Patna but struggled against the Afghans.
• After dealing with Gujarat, Akbar led a large army to Hajipur and Patna and pursued Karrani into Bengal.
• Munim Khan was later made governor of Bengal
• Akbar managed the campaign in Bengal differently from his father Humayun, focusing on consolidating power in Gujarat first.
• Munim Khan defeated Karrani in March 1575, but after his death, Karrani regained power.
• Akbar appointed Hussain Quli Khan-i-Jahan as the new governor of Bengal.
• Karrani was ultimately defeated and killed in 1576, marking the end of major Afghan resistance in Bengal.
• However, sporadic conflicts with Afghan rulers in Orissa and zamindars in southern and eastern Bengal continued until the reign of Jahangir.

Emergence of a Composite Ruling Class

• Rajputs and other Hindus were included in the Imperial service and given equal status, contributing to a composite ruling class.
• Between 1575 and 1595, about one-sixth of the nobles holding ranks of 500 and above were Hindus, with Rajputs making up the majority.

Akbar's Policy and Service Openings:

• Akbar did not limit service to powerful rajas and zamindars but opened it to talented individuals from ordinary backgrounds, both Hindu and Muslim.
• Notable Rajputs such as Raisal Darbari, Rai Manohar, and others were inducted into Imperial service.

Revenue Experts and Administrative Channel:

• Many revenue experts, primarily from the Khatri and Kayastha castes, were promoted to higher positions in the revenue department.
• Individuals like Todar Mal and Rai Patr Das played significant roles in the revenue system under Akbar.

Induction of Hindustani Sections:

• During Babur's time, Hindustanis, mainly Afghans, were inducted into the Imperial service.
• Under Akbar, sections like the Saiyads of Barha and the Shaikhzadas were also included, with the latter being influential in society.

Rise of Different Ethnic Groups:

• As the Mughals expanded, Afghans and later Marathas began to be recruited into service.
• The growth of a composite nobility led to a decline in the dominance of Turani nobles.

Break from Clan-Tribal Ties:

• Akbar aimed to break clan-tribal ties by mixing military contingents of different ethnic groups.
• This approach aimed to create a balanced nobility and army free from narrow clan-tribal loyalties.

Promotion of Ethnic and Religious Balance:

• Akbar’s efforts led to a balanced nobility of various ethnic and religious groups.
• This balance aimed to prevent dependence on any single group and pave the way for an integrated ruling class.

Need for Integrated Outlook:

• Despite a balanced nobility, an integrated religious, cultural, and political outlook was necessary for a cohesive ruling class.
• The emergence of such an integrated outlook posed challenges within the ethnically balanced ruling class.

Last Phase of Akbar’s Reign—Rebellions and further Expansion of the Empire

• In 1580, nobles in Bengal rebelled against Akbar's centralization efforts, marking a pivotal moment in the struggle between local power and central authority.
• The rebellion was a reaction to the branding system(dagh) and periodic reviews of horses introduced in 1574, which had created resentment among the nobles.
• Following the suppression of the Uzbek rebellion in 1567, the central government's power had increased, leading to tensions with the local nobility.

Causes of Discontent:

• The mullahs were dissatisfied due to the loss or reduction of their revenue-free lands, fueling discontent.
• A fatwa issued by the qazi of Jaunpur called for rebellion against the Emperor, citing encroachments on sacred lands.
• The bhatta(allowance for service) for Bengal and Bihar was significantly reduced, exacerbating tensions.

Spread of Rebellion:

• The rebellion spread across Bengal and Bihar, with rebels even reading the khutba in the name of Mirza Hakim, a rival claim to power.
• Akbar responded decisively, implementing conciliatory measures and military actions to suppress the uprising.

Military Campaigns and Consolidation:

• The northwest expansion was triggered by the rise of Abdullah Uzbek, who captured Badakhshan in 1584, prompting appeals for help from Mirza Hakim and the ousted Timurid prince Mirza Sulaiman.
• After Mirza Hakim’s death in 1585, Akbar aimed to secure Kabul, with Man Singh leading the charge to occupy the region.
• Akbar himself supervised operations in the Indus region and took measures to secure the Khyber Pass against Afghan rebels.

Conquest of Kashmir:

• Kashmir was targeted in 1586 after Yaqub Khan, the local ruler, refused to pay homage to Akbar.
• The region was initially resisted but was eventually conquered by Qasim Khan in 1587, leading to the submission of various hill rajas.

Expansion into Sindh and Beyond:

• In 1590, Akbar’s forces captured lower Sindh, crucial for establishing trade routes from Qandahar to the sea via Multan and the river Indus.
• Throughout this period, areas like Baluchistan were brought under Mughal control, solidifying Akbar's influence.

Final Acts of Expansion:

• The capture of Qandahar provided a defensible frontier for the Mughal Empire.
• Conquests in the west, such as Kathiawar, and the transfer of Man Singh to Bihar in 1587, further strengthened Mughal dominance.
• Dacca in East Bengal and Orissa were also conquered under Man Singh, rounding off Mughal conquests in North India.

Transition to the Deccan:

• With North India consolidated, Akbar turned his focus towards the Deccan, laying the groundwork for future expansion.

Legacy and Succession Issues:

• The latter years of Akbar's reign were marked by the rebellion of his son Salim, raising succession concerns even as Mughal rule became more entrenched.
• Despite the challenges, Akbar's era was characterized by significant territorial expansion and consolidation of the Mughal Empire.