Ancient Capital Cities | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Purushpura

Modern Peshawar in the North-West Frontier Province (NWF) of Pakistan:

• Capital of Kushana ruler Kanishka (2nd century AD)

Kushana period:

• Sculptures 
• Buddhist stupa 
• Buddhist Chaitya 
• Trade centre as it lay on the old Silk Route 
• Centre of Buddhist learning
• Mentioned by Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang

Taxila

• Taxila was a commercial hub situated at the crossroads of three major trade routes connecting West Asia, northern India, and Central Asia. 
• The city was known for its artisanal production and skilled craftsmanship. 
• Taxila was also an early centre of education, often considered one of the earliest universities. 
• Notable figures such as Charaka, Chanakya, Jivaka, and Panini are associated with Taxila University. 
• In terms of its political significance, Taxila was the capital of the Gandhara satrapy under the Achaemenian Empire. 
• The city was visited by the Chinese pilgrims Fa Hian in the 5th century and Hieun Tsang in the 7th century, who documented its decline during their visits. 

Sagala/ Sakala/ Sialkot

• Historical Significance: Mentioned in Greek historical texts as a productive region during the Achaemenid Empire. 
• Indo-Greek Era: Capital of King Menander in the 2nd century BCE; a center of Buddhism during this period. 
• Archaeological Findings: Greek coins, ancient Zoroastrian temples, and Buddhist stupas have been discovered in the area. 
• Later History: In 1181 AD, Muhammad Ghouri established a fortress in Sialkot. 

Parihaspura

• Founded by Lalitaditya Muktapida: Parihaspur was established in the 8th century AD by Lalitaditya Muktapida, a great monarch of the Karkota dynasty known for his significant contributions to Kashmir. 
• Capital and Temples: Lalitaditya made Parihaspur his capital and constructed numerous temples dedicated to deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Buddha. Notably, he installed a silver image of Vishnu in the Govardanahara temple at Parihaspur. 
• Agraharas, Viharas, and Palaces: The king built agraharas (grants of land), viharas (monasteries), and palaces in and around Parihaspur, further enriching the area. 
• Cultural and Trade Centre: During Lalitaditya's reign, Parihaspur thrived as an important cultural and trade center. However, after his death, the city declined and lost its prominence. 

Avantipur/ Awantipora

• Temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu: Built by King Awantivarman (AD 855- 883) of the Utpala dynasty when he chose the site as his capital. 

Avantishvara temple:

• Dedicated to Lord Shiva. 
• Built by Avantivarman. 
• Panchayatana type. 
• Gateway is double-chambered. 
• Devoid of any ornamentation. 
• Main sanctum is raised on a high platform. 
• The ruins of temples constructed by Lalitaditya of the Karkota dynasty located here. 

Sisupalgarh

• There is a ruined fortification that is one of the largest and best-preserved early historic fortifications in India. 
• This site likely represents Tosali, mentioned in the edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli. Some scholars also identify it with Kalinganagara, noted as the capital of King Kharvela in the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri cave. 
• Antiquities found here that suggest an urban touch include: 
• Plenty of iron objects
• Bangles made of glass and ivory
• Semi-precious stones
• Coin-moulds
• The presence of Rouletted ware associated with the Romans and lockets imitating Roman coins indicates trade contacts with foreign countries. 

Sirpur(Political and Cultural centre)

• Location: Bank of the Mahanadi River, Chhattisgarh. 
• Historical Significance: Once the capital of the Somavanashi dynasty. 
• Cultural Heritage: Rich in traditional cultural heritage and architecture. 
• Notable Temples:Laxman Temple: Dedicated to Vishnu. Gandheswar Temple: Dedicated to Shiva. 
• Other Architectural Marvels: Buddha viharas, a Jain vihara, monolithic statues of Buddha and Mahavir, a 6th-century Ayurvedic Snaan Kund. 
• Buddhist Centre: Important Buddhist site from the 6th to 10th century A.D. Visited by the Chinese traveler Hiuen-Tsang. 
• Natural Disaster: The city was destroyed by a devastating earthquake in the 12th century. 

Viratnagar (Bairat)

• Historical Significance: Capital of the Mahajanapada of Machcha or Matsya. Later became part of the Mauryan Empire. 
• Artefacts Found: Ruins of a Buddhist monastery, a wood and timber shrine, and a rock-cut edict of Emperor Ashoka. 
• Architectural Importance: The Buddhist Chaitya here is considered the earliest free-standing religious building. 

Mathura

• Centre of Craft and Trade: Mathura was known for its textile production and was a junction of important trade routes, Uttarpatha and Dakshinapatha. 
• Religious Centre: It was a significant centre for Buddhism, Jainism, and early Hinduism. 
• Kushana Period: During this time, Mathura became the southern capital of the Kushana Empire and was famous for the Mathura School of Arts. 
• Archaeological Findings: Evidence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW), Black Red Ware (BRW), and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) has been found in the region. 
• Urbanization: The beginnings of urbanization in Mathura can be traced back to the Kushana period, with discoveries of post-holes and a double ditch indicating settlement activities. 
• Specialized Crafts: The region was known for specialized crafts such as the manufacture of terracotta figurines, copper and iron working, and bead making. 

AhichchhatraIn Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh.

• Capital of Northern Panchala, Mahajanapada. 
• A brick fortification excavated. 
• PGW was first identified at Ahichchhatra. 
• PGW was followed by NBPW Period. 
• Panchala and Kushana coins have been found here. 

Kampilya

• The site is located in the Farukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh. 
• Historically, it was the capital of South Panchala during the Mahajanapada period, which adds to its significance. 

Continuous Settlement

• There has been a continuous settlement at the site from the PGW (Painted Grey Ware) phase onwards. 

Structural Evidence

• At the PGW levels, there is evidence of wattle-and-daub and mud huts, indicating the types of structures that were present during that time. 

Kanyakubja/ Kannauj

• Kannauj is situated on the banks of the river Ganga in the Kannauj district of Uttar Pradesh. 
• Ancient Name: Its ancient name was Kanyakubja. 
• Historical Significance: Kannauj was the capital of the Maukharis and Harshavardhana. 
• Chinese Pilgrims: The Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang visited Kannauj. Xuanzang described it as a large and prosperous city with many Buddhist monasteries during the reign of Harsha. 
• Post-Harsha Period: After the death of Harshavardhana in the 7th century, Kannauj became a focal point in the struggle between the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas. 
• Invasion by Md. Ghori: When Md. Ghori invaded India, Kannauj was ruled by Raja Jaichandra, who was in conflict with the Chauhan ruler Prithviraj. 
• Battle of Kannauj: In the Battle of Kannauj, Sher Shah Suri defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun. 
• Ittar (Perfume): Kannauj is famous for its Ittar, a traditional perfume. 

Shravasti

• Shravasti district, located in Uttar Pradesh, India, was a significant center for Buddhists and Jainas. 
• During the 6th century BC, it served as the capital of the Kosala Mahajanapada. 
• Shravasti was situated on important northern trade routes. 
• Numerous ancient artifacts such as idols, inscriptions, stupas, and viharas have been discovered in the area. 
• It is also believed to be the birthplace of Tirthankara Sambhavanath in Jainism. 
• The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited India in the 7th century, found the city in a state of ruin at that time. 
• Archaeological findings indicate that Shravasti was a site of the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) cultures. 
• Structural remains from the PGW period include wattle-and-daub and mud huts. 

Kaushambi

• Located in Kashambi district, Uttar Pradesh. 
• Capital of Vatsa, a Mahajanapada from the 6th century B.C.. 
• Ashokan Pillars discovered in the area. 
• Known as a center of trade. 
• Visited by the Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang. 
• Excavations indicate settlements dating back to the 2nd millennium B.C.. 
• Findings of PGW pottery and evidence of iron suggest a later Vedic settlement. 

Varanasi/ Banaras

• Varanasi was the capital of Kashi Mahajanapada in the 6th century BC. 
• It was a center of education for Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains, where the Vedas, Upanishads, and other texts were taught in ashrams. 
• Nearby, at Deer Park in Sarnath, Buddha delivered his first sermon. 
• The Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited Varanasi and confirmed its status as a center of religious and artistic activity. 
• The Parshvanath Jain temple is located in Varanasi. 
• During medieval times, several Bhakti saints, including Kabir, Ravidas, and Tulsidas, were associated with Varanasi. 
• Varanasi is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga sites, home to the Kashi Vishwanath temple, which is significant for Hindu salvation. 
• The Banaras Gharana of Hindustani Classical Music also developed in this city. 

Kusinagar

• Capital of the Mallas Mahajanapadas
• Buddhist Pilgrimage Site. Buddha passed away here in 483 BC. 
• Historical Visits. Ashoka visited and built a stupa; Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang also visited. 
• Archaeological Findings. Artifacts and structures related to all sects of Buddhism have been found. 

Patlaliputra

• Ancient capital of Magadha until the 5th century BC when Ajatashatru (and later Udayin. moved the capital to Pataliputra. 
• Its strategic location at the confluence of the Ganges, Gandhaka, and Son rivers (forming a “jaldurga ”) helped it dominate riverine trade in the Indo-Gangetic plains during the Magadha period. 
• Became a center of trade and commerce, attracting merchants and intellectuals. 
• Excavations in Kumharar (Patna) reveal large fortification walls, including wooden trusses. 

Capital of the Maurya Empire

• Greek ambassador Megasthenes resided in Pataliputra and left a detailed account in Indica. 
• The city was a flourishing center for Buddhism and Jainism. 
• The Third Buddhist Council during Ashoka’s reign and the First Jain Council were held here. 

Capital forNandas, Mauryans, Sungas, Guptas, and Palas. 

• The city was largely in ruins when visited by Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang in the 7th century. 
• Sher Shah made Pataliputra his capital and renamed it Patna. 

Vaishali

• Capital city of the Licchavi, considered one of the first examples of a republic, in the Vrijji Confederacy Mahajanapada. 
• Important place for Jain and Buddhist religions. 
• Here in 599 BCE, the 24th Jain Tirthankara, Mahavira, was born and brought up in Kundagrama in the Vaisali republic. 
• During Bimbisara, Gautama Buddha preached his last sermon before his death in 483 BCE. 
• In 383 BCE, the Second Buddhist council was convened here by King Kalasoka. 
• An Ashokan Pillar is found here, topped by a single lion. 
• Mentioned by Faxian (4th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th century CE). 
• Renowned as the land of Amrapali, the great Indian courtesan who appears in many folktales and Buddhist literature, said to have become a disciple of Buddha. 

Rajgir / Rajagriha

Rajagriha is located in the Nalanda district of Bihar. 

• It was the ancient capital of Magadha until the 5th century BC when Ajatashatru and later Udayin moved the capital to Pataliputra. 
• Rajagriha was surrounded by five hills, which made it difficult to conquer. 
• The site is also mentioned in Buddhist and Jain scriptures and is associated with the lives of both Buddha and Mahavir. 
• Gautama Buddha spent several months meditating and preaching in Rajagriha. 
• The first Buddhist council was held in Rajagriha. 
• Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang wrote about Rajagriha in their accounts. 

Champa

• Champa, located near Bhagalpur in Bihar, was the ancient capital of Anga, one of the Mahajanapadas in the 6th century. 
• The region had a significant Buddhist influence during this period. 
• Champa served as a vital river port and center of trade, engaging in commerce with South India and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). 
• Eventually, Champa was annexed to the Magadhan Empire. 
• In the 7th century, the Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang visited Champa, highlighting its importance during that time. 

Mahastanagarh

• Also known as Pundranagar, this city was the capital of the ancient Pundra kingdom. 
• It served as the provincial capital under various dynasties, including the Mauryans, the Guptas, and the Palas. 

Artefacts Found:

• Silver punch-marked coins 
• Copper cast coins 
• Gupta period coins 
• Shards and terracotta plaques 

Sculptures:

• Buddha stone sculpture 
• Buddha bronze sculpture 
• Lokesvara stone sculpture (a blend of Vishnu and Avalokitesvara) 
• Sandstone door frames, pillars, and lintels 

Vengi

• Chalukyas of Badami: The main branch of the Chalukya dynasty. 
• Chalukyas of Lata: One of the independent branches of the Chalukya lineage. 
• Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi: The second branch that ruled independently, establishing their kingdom in the Andhra region. 

Eastern Chalukyas:

• Establishment: The Eastern Chalukyas set up their rule in the Andhra region, with Vengi as their capital, in the latter half of the 8th century. 
• Allahabad Prashasti: An inscription that mentions Samudragupta, a ruler who captured and then released several southern kings, including Hastivarman of Vengi. 
• Hastivarman:. king from the Shalankayana dynasty of Vengi, whose capital was also Vengi. 

Amaravati

• Located in Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, on the banks of the Krishna River. 
• Archaeological site with Meghalithic, Black Red Ware (BRW), and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) findings. 
• An inscription in Maurya Brahmi script was discovered here. 
• Dhanyakataka was the capital of the Satavahana dynasty. 
• Known for its Buddhist heritage, including stupas and Mahachaityas made of marble and limestone, adorned with sculptures. 
• The carved panels depict stories from the life of Buddha. 
• The site was visited by the Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang in the 7th century. 
• The presence of the Sri Amaralingeswara Swamy temple adds to its significance as a holy town for Hindus. 
• An ancient school of arts thrived here for about six centuries, starting from 200-100 BC, initially supported by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshvakus. 
• Some Buddhist sculptures from this period show Greco-Roman influence. 

Nagarjunakonda (Vijayapuri)

• Neolithic and Megalithic culture.
• The city which once stood in the valley is called Vijayapuri and it was the capital of the southern line of the Ikshvaku kings (210-260 A.D) who rose into prominence after the fall of the imperial Satavahanas. 
• Under their patronage Buddhism flourished in this part of the country. 
• It was a centre of Buddhism and named after Nagarjuna, philosopher of Mahayana Buddhism. 
• Also various Buddhist stupas, shrines and monasteries found. 
• Yielded remains of canal and stadium-like structure. 
• Also several temples have been discovered among which the one dedicated to God Kartikeya is unique. 
• Also an important economic centre as large number of artisans and merchant guilds belonged to this region. 

Mukhlingam

• Situated in the Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. 
• Once the capital city of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. 

Architectural Heritage:

• Renowned for the Madhukashvara temple, which showcases the early Odishan style of art and architecture. 

Archaeological Findings:

• Discovery of sherds of Rouletted Ware of Roman type and a Satavahana coin indicates the site’s commercial significance and trade activities during the early Christian era. 

Manyakheta/Malkhed

• Founding and Capital: Modern Malkhed was founded by the Rashtrakutas, an ancient Indian dynasty. The founder of the Rashtrakutas was Dantidurga. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Modern Malkhed became the capital of the Rashtrakutas. 
• Move to Manyakheta: The capital was later moved to Manyakheta by Amoghavarsha, a notable ruler of the Rashtrakutas. 
• Western Chalukyas: After the Rashtrakutas, Modern Malkhed came under the control of the Western Chalukyas, another powerful dynasty in South India. 
• Centre of Saivism and Vaisnavism: Throughout its history, Modern Malkhed was a significant centre for Saivism and Vaisnavism, two important Hindu religious traditions. Saivism is the worship of Lord Shiva, while Vaisnavism is the worship of Lord Vishnu. 

Badami

• Located in Bagalkot district, Karnataka, Vatapi was the capital of the Early Chalukyas and was founded in 540 AD by Pulakeshi I. 
• The town is known for its sandstone cave temples and structural temples, which represent the early styles of southern Indian architecture. 

Historical Significance:

• Vatapi was a thriving city with a rich cultural heritage, as evidenced by the numerous inscriptions and temple ruins found in the area. 
• The city was known for its skilled artisans and craftsmen, who produced exquisite sculptures and carvings that adorned the temples. 

Temples:

• Rock-Cut Cave Temples: These temples feature deities such as Lord Shiva (with Parvati), Lord Vishnu, and Jain Tirthankaras. The depiction of Lord Nataraja in various dancing poses is a notable highlight. 
• Muktheeswara Temple, Melagutti Sivalaya, Bhutanatha Group of Temples, and Mallikarjuna Group of Temples are other significant sites, with intricate paintings on the ceilings and detailed sculptures. 

Inscriptions:

• The first Sanskrit inscription in old Kannada script, dating back to 543 CE during Pulakeshi I's reign, marks the historical significance of the site. 
• Other notable inscriptions include those found near the Bhutanatha temple and 12th-century inscriptions in the Jain rock-cut temple dedicated to Adinatha. 

Pratishthana (Paithan)

• Historical Significance: Aurangabad was the capital of the Satavahana dynasty from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. 
• Ancient References: The region is mentioned in the 1st century AD Greek text, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and in Ashoka's Rock Edicts. 
• Trade Hub: Aurangabad was an important emporium of trade in ancient times. 
• Cultural Heritage: The district is home to the famous saint Eknath. 
• Modern Fame: Today, Aurangabad is renowned for its Paithani silk saris. 

Potali

• Capital of Assaka Mahajanapada located on the Godavari river.
• The Godavari separated Assaka from the neighbouring kingdom.
• Jataka stories suggest that Assaka may at some point have come under the sway of Kashi and it achieved a military victory over Kalinga in eastern India.
• The Buddhist text mentions about a ruler of Assaka, Brahmadatta who ruled from Potali.

Mahismati

• Maheshwar is located on the banks of the Narmada River in Madhya Pradesh.
• It was the southern capital of Avanti, a Mahajanapada (ancient kingdom) from the 6th century BC.
• In ancient times, Maheshwar was a trading center known for its cotton goods.
• The town was well connected to Rajgir and Paithan, facilitating trade and communication.

Ujjain

• Located on the banks of the Shipra River, Ujjain was known as Ujjaini and served as the northern capital of the Avanti Mahajanapadas in the 6th century BC.
• With the rise of Magadhan power, Ujjain came under the Magadhan Empire.
• During the reign of Mauryan King Bindusara, Ashoka was the provincial governor of Ujjain.
• Evidence suggests that the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) made its way to the northern Deccan from the Gangetic plains through Ujjain.
• Coins from the Kshatrapas and Kushanas have been found in the region, indicating its historical significance.
• There is evidence of bead manufacturing in Ujjain, showcasing its ancient craftsmanship.
• Ujjain is associated with a king who called himself Vikramaditya and is believed to have started the Vikram Samvat Era in 58 BC after defeating the Sakas.
• The famous poet Kalidasa is believed to have connections with Ujjain.
• During the Mughal period, Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh built an astronomical observatory in Ujjain.
• Most of the temples in Ujjain were constructed during the Maratha period.
• The Mahakaleshwar Temple, one of the 12 Jyotirlingas, is located in Ujjain.
• Ujjain is also famous for hosting the Kumbh Mela, a major Hindu pilgrimage festival.

Halebidu

• Capital of the Hoysala kings in the 10th to 12th century.

Temple complex:

• Hoysaleswara temple:
• Features two monolithic Nandi images on either side.
• Kedareshwara temple:
• Jain Basadi:
• Two Jain basadis known for their intricate sculptural details.

Construction Material:

• Temples built using soapstone.

Decorative Features:

• Walls adorned with depictions from Hindu mythology, animals, birds, and shilabalikas (dancing figures).
• Jain basadis also feature rich sculptural details.

Kanchipuram

• Located on the banks of the Vegavathi River.
• Served as the capital of the Pallavas from the 6th to the 8th century A.D. Later influenced by the Cholas and the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Renowned as a centre of art, architecture, and learning.
• Home to the Kailasanathar Temple, built by Pallava King Rajasimha.
• Features the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple.
• Historical centre for Jainism and Buddhism, with educational institutions known as Ghatikas.
• A hub of religious and literary activity for Vaishnavites and Shaivites, including Bhakti saints, Alvars, and Nayanars.
• Famous for its silk industry, particularly pure mulberry silk and zari work.

Tanjore/ Thanjavur

• Historical Significance: Thanjavur was the capital of the medieval Chola dynasty and is known for its rich heritage in religion, art, and architecture.
• UNESCO World Heritage: The Chola Temples in Thanjavur are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Monuments.
• Brihadeeswara Temple: Built in the 11th century by Raja Raja Chola I, this temple is dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva.
• Nandi: The entrance of the sanctuary is guarded by Nandi, the second largest Nandi statue in India, carved from a single block of granite.
• Wall Paintings: The walls of the sanctum are adorned with wall paintings from the Chola and Nayaka periods.
• Gangaikonda Cholesvarar Temple: The Brihadeeswara Temple served as an inspiration for this temple, built by Raja Raja Chola I's son, Rajendra Chola I.
• Tanjore Painting: Originating in the early 17th century during the Nayaka period, Tanjore paintings depict episodes from religious texts as well as secular subjects.
• Handicrafts and Handwoven Silk: Thanjavur is also famous for its handicrafts, handwoven silk, and glass and bronze icons.
• Archaeological Finds: Numerous epigraphs, inscriptions, and coins belonging to different kings have been discovered in the region.

Madurai/ Madura

• Historical Significance. Madurai, the capital of the Pandya dynasty, is renowned as the central seat of Tamil literature and learning. It was the site of the Third Sangam and has been mentioned by ancient scholars like Megasthenes and Kautilya, the latter highlighting its importance in cotton fabric production.
• Literary References. The Maduraikkanchi, part of the Pattuppattu, describes the city’s palace, temples, houses, and markets. Sangam texts also emphasize Madurai as a crucial trade center and capital city.
• Craftsmanship. Madurai is known for its exquisite crafts, including gold ornaments, ivory work, inlay work, and bangle making. The Arthashastra recognizes it as a hub for fine cotton textiles. Traders from Madurai were also famous for selling pearls and precious stones.
• Historical Monuments. The Meenakshi Amman Temple, dedicated to Parvati (Meenakshi) and her consort Shiva (Sundareswara), was rebuilt by the Madurai Nayakas in the Dravida style. The temple is famous for its towering gopurams, each adorned with thousands of stone figures of animals, gods, and demons, and features paintings from the Nayaka period (17th and 18th centuries). The Tirumalai Nayak Palace is another significant historical site in Madurai.

Korkai

• Location: Near the mouth of the Vaigai River in the Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu.
• Historical Significance: The first capital of the Pandyas, an ancient dynasty in South India.
• Economic Activity: Known as a Pandya port famous for its pearls, as described in Sangam literature and Greek accounts.
• Archaeological Evidence: Excavations indicate it was an important pearl fishing center, also mentioned in the Arthashastra, an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft.
• Decline: The port became inaccessible to ships due to delta silting, leading to the gradual decay of the city.
• Artifacts: Findings include BRW (Black and Red Ware) and locally made rouletted ware with Brahmi inscriptions dating from around 200 BCE to 200 CE.

Vallabhi

• Located on an inlet of the Gulf of Khambhat, northwest of Bhavnagar in Gujarat.
• Capital of the Maitraka Dynasty from 480 to 775 CE.
• Founded by Senapati Bhatarka, the dynasty's founder.
• Renowned as a center of learning and home to Buddhist monasteries.
• Visited by Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Yijing in the 7th century.
• Site of the Second Jaina Council under Devardhi in the 6th century, when Jaina scriptures were standardized.
• Although the city has disappeared, it is believed to be located in the village of Vala, where many copper plate inscriptions and seals of the Maitrakas have been discovered.

Pragjyotishpur

• Located in present-day Guwahati, Assam.
• Capital of the Kamarupa Kingdom during the Varman Dynasty (350 – 650 A.D.).
• The name 'Pragjyotispur' means "the city of eastern light."
• Xuanzang, a Chinese traveler, visited Pragjyotispura during the reign of King Bhaskaravarman and noted:
  • The region's natural beauty and pleasant climate.
  • The people's language, temperament, and their belief in 'devas' (gods), in contrast to Buddhism.
  • The presence of many temples and the absence of Buddhist monasteries (sangharamas).

Anuradhapura:

• Located in the Anuradhapura District of the North Central Province, Sri Lanka.
• A sacred city for Buddhism and the ancient capital of Sri Lanka.
• Established around a cutting from the Buddha's fig tree, the tree of enlightenment, brought to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century B.C. by Sanghamitta, the founder of an order of Buddhist nuns.
• According to the Dipavamsa  and Mahavamsa  , Emperor Ashoka sent his son Mahinda to Sri Lanka, where he preached Buddhism to King Devanampiya Tissa.
• Over time, the royal family and nobility of Sri Lanka strongly supported Buddhism, leading to the popularity of art depicting Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Mercy and Compassion.
• Numerous ancient monuments, including Buddhist temples and stupas, were established during this period.

Saketa/ Ayoddhya

Location:

• Situated on the right bank of the Sarayu River in Faizabad district, Uttar Pradesh.

Historical Significance:

• Southern capital of the Mahajanpada Kosala, with another capital at Savatthi (Sravasti).
• Kosala was eventually absorbed into Magadha.
• Birthplace of the first and fourth Jaina tirthankara.
• Mentioned in the Buddhist text Majjhima Nikaya as a region where Buddha resided.
• Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, taught in Kosala.
• Under King Mahakosala, the conquered kingdom of Kashi became part of Kosala.
• Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Prasenajit, a follower of Buddha.

Archaeological Findings:

• NBPW Phase: Houses made of burnt brick and terracotta ring wells.
• Early Jaina Images:. grey terracotta figure of a Jaina saint from the 4th/3rd century BCE, one of the earliest Jaina images found.
• Later Period: Various coins and terracotta sealings, including:
• Punch-marked coins
• Uninscribed cast coins
• Inscribed copper coins
• Trade Links: Rouletted ware indicating trade connections with eastern India.

Mythological Significance:

• Ayodhya is mythologically associated with Lord Rama.

Hastinapur

• Capital of Kuru
• Jaina tradition: Place associated with Rishabha, the first tirthankara.
• Historical Significance: Mahavira visited this place.
• Archaeological Periods: Early Chalcolithic Period (OCP) followed by Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
• Early Settlements: Wattle-and-daub and mud huts. Unbaked bricks.
• Artefacts: Chert and jasper weights, horse bones found.
• 2nd century BCE–3rd century CE: Urbanisation
• Pottery: Wheel-turned red ware with intricate designs including fish, leaves, flowers, svastikas, triratnas, loops, circles, and other geometric patterns.
• Habitation: Planned settlements with burnt brick and ring wells.
• Artefacts: Objects made of iron, copper, ivory, and terracotta figurines.
• Trade Items: Coins from the Yaudheyas and Kushana.
• Terracotta Items: Figurines of humped bulls and torsos of the bodhisattva Maitreya.

Vanji or Kuravur/Karur

• Inland capital of the early Chera dynasty during the Sangam age.
• A political centre as well as a hub for crafts and trade.

Pottery:

• Black Red Ware (BRW)
• Roman amphorae
• Locally made rouletted ware

Coins:

• Roman copper coins
• Copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow
• Silver portrait coins, suggesting a Chera mint may have been located here

Jewel Making:

• Literary sources mention jewel making as a craft
• Confirmed by the discovery of finger rings with various carved motifs

Uraiyur

• Tiruchirappalli, located on the banks of the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu, was the capital of the early Chola dynasty.
• The ancient text "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" refers to it as "Araguru."
• Sangam poems describe Tiruchirappalli as a great fortified city and mention burial grounds full of stones on its outskirts, likely megaliths.
• The city was a major center for cotton trade and pearl fishing.
• Tiruchirappalli is mentioned in Ashokan and Satavahana inscriptions.

Pottery and Artifacts:

Various types of pottery have been found in Tiruchirappalli, including:

• Black and Red Ware (BRW)
• Russet-coated Painted Ware
• Rouletted Ware
• Arretine Ware
• Red-slipped Ware
• Graffiti and inscriptions in Brahmi script have also been discovered.
• A rectangular cistern was found in the area, indicating advanced water management.

Vilinam/ Vizhinjam

• The capital of the Ay dynasty in the 8th/9th century AD was a port situated near present-day Thiruvananthapuram.
• This region witnessed numerous battles between the Kulashekhara dynasty and the Chola dynasty.

Historical Significance:

• Raja Raja Chola, a prominent ruler, defeated the Pandyan King and seized the port of Vilinam.
• Recent archaeological excavations have revealed that this port engaged in maritime trade with the coastal region of the Red Sea during the Roman Period. This is evidenced by the discovery of Amphora potsherds, indicating a flourishing trade network.

Kapilvastu

• Kapilavastu is located in the Kapilvastu district of Nepal, about 25 km northwest of Lumbini.
• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was the capital of the ancient Shakya kingdom.
• Historical Significance. Kapilavastu is famous as the birthplace of Gautam Buddha, who was born to King Suddhodana and Queen Mayadevi of the Shakya kingdom.
• The site was visited by Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang during their pilgrimages.
• Kapilavastu was also an ancient trade center, highlighting its economic importance in history.

Gangaikonda cholapuram

• Located in Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu.
• Capital city of the Chola dynasty.
• Founded by Rajendra Chola to celebrate his victory over the Pala dynasty.
• The name means "the town of the Chola who led a great victorious march to the River Ganges."
• Rajendra Chola established the Gangaikondaan temple here.
• The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is built in the Dravida style of architecture.
• It is famous for its intricate carvings on hard granite stones.
• Notable figures include dancing Nataraja and Ardhanareshwara.

Aihole

• Bijapur District, Karnataka: Aihole is located in the Bijapur district of Karnataka, east of Pattadakal and west of Badami.
• Historical Significance: Aihole was the first capital of the Western Chalukyas before it was moved to Badami.
• Architectural Heritage: The site is renowned for its Chalukyan architecture, featuring numerous stone temples dating back to the 5th century CE. These are among the earliest examples of structural temples in India.
• Notable Temples: Of the seventy temples in Aihole, four stand out:
• Ladh Khan Temple:. flat-roofed structure with a pillared hall.
• Durga Temple: Resembles a Buddhist Chaitya (prayer hall).
• Huchimalligudi Temple: Another significant temple in the area.
• Jain Temple at Meguti: An important site with a Jain cave temple.
• Caves: Aihole also features several rock-cut caves, including:
• Ravana Phadi Cave:. rock-cut temple.
• Jain Cave Temple:. temple dedicated to Jainism.
• Buddhist Chaitya Cave:. partly rock-cut structure used for Buddhist worship.

Aihole Inscription:The Aihole inscription, known as the Aihole Prasasti, is found in the Meguti Temple. 

• The Aihole inscription was written by Ravikirti in 634 A.D..
• Ravikirti was a poet in the court of Pulakesin II, a ruler of the Chalukya dynasty.
• The inscription is in Sanskrit and Old Kannada script.
• It details Pulakesin II’s military campaigns, especially against the Pallavas and Harshavardhana.
• Pulakesin II’s victory over Harshavardhana is highlighted as a major achievement. 

Besnagar

• Vidisha, located near Bhopal, is an ancient city with a rich history.
• It was originally known as Besnagar and Bhilsa and served as the capital of the Sunga dynasty.
• The city is mentioned in Buddhist, Jain, and Brahmanical literature, highlighting its significance in ancient texts.

Heliodorus Pillar:

• The Heliodorus Pillar, also known as the Besnagar Pillar or Garuda Pillar, is a famous archaeological site in Vidisha.
• This monolithic, free-standing stone column was erected around 113 BCE by Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador.
• Heliodorus was sent by an Indo-Greek king to the court of the Shunga king.
• The pillar is topped by a sculpture of Garuda, a mythical bird in Hindu mythology.
• An inscription on the pillar states that it was raised in honour of the god Vasudeva by Heliodorus.

Nearby Attractions:

• The Udayagiri Caves are located near Vidisha, featuring ancient rock-cut caves with historical significance.
• The ancient Buddhist complex of Sanchi is also situated nearby, known for its stupas and intricate carvings.

Thanesar

• Location: Thanesar is situated on the banks of the Ghaggar River in Haryana.
• Historical Significance: It was the early capital of the Vardhana dynasty, known for its prosperity.
• Religious Importance: Thanesar is a significant Hindu pilgrimage centre, with important religious sites like the Mahadev temple and Bhishma Kund.
• Harshavardhana's Capital: The famous ruler Harshavardhana later shifted his capital to Kannauj.
• Hieun-Tsang's Visit: The Chinese traveler Hieun-Tsang visited Thanesar and described it as a prosperous city during his time.
• Invasion by Mahmud of Ghazni: In 1011 A.D., Mahmud of Ghazni ransacked Thanesar, destroying many of its temples.
• Battle of Thanesar:. significant battle took place in Thanesar between Akbar and the Rajputs.