Ancient Jain Sites | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Udayagiri- Khandagiri Caves

Twin Hills: Udayagiri and Khandagiri:

• Location: Near Bhubaneswar, Odisha. 
• Caves: There are 33 rock-cut caves on both hills. Most are single-storied, but some are double-storied. 
• Purpose: These caves served as dwelling retreats for Jaina monks. 
• Excavation: The caves were excavated by King Kharavela and his successors. 
• Ranigumpha Caves: These are double-storied and the largest among the caves. 

Hathigumpha Inscription:

• The inscription is 17 lines long and dates back to the 2nd century BCE. It is in Prakrit and incised in a Brahmi script. 
• The inscription discusses various aspects of King Kharavela's reign, including: 
• Military conquests 
• Orientation towards Jainism 
• Construction works 
• Liberal religious spirit 
• Patronage of arts such as music and dance 
• Retrieving an image of a Jina 

Significance: This inscription is the earliest epigraphic reference to image worship in Jainism. 

Badami Caves

Introduction to Bagalkot District:
Bagalkot district, located in Karnataka, was once the capital of the Early Chalukyas. It was founded in 540 AD by Pulakeshi I of the Chalukya dynasty. 

Historical Significance:

• The district holds historical significance as the capital of the Early Chalukyas. 
• Pulakeshi I, the founder, played a crucial role in establishing the region's prominence. 

Invasion by Pallavas:

• The Pallavas, under their ruler Narasimhavarma I, invaded and destroyed Vatapi, the capital of the Chalukyas. 
• Narasimhavarma I later took on the title "Vatapikonda," meaning "conqueror of Vatapi," to signify his victory. 

Temples in Bagalkot District:

• The district is home to various temples, including sandstone cave temples and structural temples, representing early styles of southern Indian architecture. 
• Rock-cut cave temples dedicated to deities such as Siva (with Parvati), Vishnu, and Jain Tirthankaras are notable features. 
• The Muktheeswara temple, Melagutti Sivalaya, and the Bhutanatha and Mallikarjuna groups of temples are significant sites. 
• Some temples also feature intricate paintings on their ceilings. 

Inscriptions and Historical Records:

• The district contains important inscriptions, including the first Sanskrit inscription in the old Kannada script dating back to 543 CE during Pulakeshi I's reign. 
• Inscriptions near the Bhutanatha temple and from the 12th century in Jain rock-cut temples dedicated to Adinatha provide further historical context. 

Aihole

• Aihole is located in the Bijapur district of Karnataka. 
• It is situated to the east of Pattadakal, while Badami lies to the west of both Aihole and Pattadakal. 
• Aihole was the first capital of the Western Chalukyas before it was moved to Badami. 
• The region is known for its Chalukyan architecture, featuring numerous stone temples that date back to the 5th century CE. 
• Aihole is home to some of the earliest structural temples in India. 

Important Temples in Aihole:

• Ladh Khan Temple:. flat-roofed structure with a pillared hall. 
• Durga Temple: This temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya (a type of Buddhist shrine). 
• Huchimalligudi Temple: Another significant temple in the area. 
• Jain Temple at Meguti:. notable Jain temple located in Meguti. 

Caves in Aihole:

• Ravana Phadi Cave:. cave with rock-cut temples. 
• Jain Cave Temple:. cave temple dedicated to Jainism. 
• Buddhist Chaitya Cave:. partly rock-cut structure that served as a Buddhist Chaitya (a prayer hall). 

Aihole Inscription:

• Aihole Prasasti in Meguti Temple: This inscription was composed by Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II, in 634 A.D. 
• Language and Script: The inscription is written in Sanskrit and uses the old Karnataka script. 
• Content: It provides a detailed account of Pulakesin II’s exploits against neighboring kingdoms, particularly the Pallavas. 
• Victory Against Harshavardhana: The inscription describes Pulakesin II’s victory over Harshavardhana, a prominent ruler of the time. 

Pattadakal

Location and UNESCO Status:

• The Group of Monuments in Pattadakal is situated on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in the Bagalakote district of Karnataka. 
• This site is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its historical and architectural significance. 

Overview of Temples:

• The group includes a remarkable series of nine Hindu temples and a Jain sanctuary. 
• There are eight temples dedicated to Shiva, a Shaivite sanctuary known as the Papanatha Temple, and a Jain temple dedicated to Narayana. 

Virupaksha Temple:

• The Virupaksha Temple is the most outstanding architectural feature of this group. 
• It was built around 740 CE by Queen Lokamahadevi to honor her husband, King Vikramaditya II, for his victory over the Pallava kings from the south. 

Architectural Significance:

• The temples were constructed by the Chalukya Dynasty between the 6th and 8th centuries at sites including Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal. 
• They represent a remarkable fusion of the Nagara and Dravida architectural styles. 

Decorative Friezes:

• The friezes in the Hindu temples depict various Vedic and Puranic concepts, as well as stories from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Bhagavata Purana. 
• They also include elements from other Hindu texts such as the Panchatantra and the Kiratarjuniya. 

Ellora Caves

Location: Aurangabad district, Maharashtra Type of Site: Rock-cut caves (6th century AD onward) Religious Background: Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain rock-cut temples and Viharas Historical Period: Built during the Kalachuri, Chalukya, and Rashtrakuta periods Jain Digambara Cave Temples: Jagannatha Sabha, built by the Rashtrakuta dynasty Viharas: Monastic complexes carved into the rock Chaitya Griha: One chaitya griha (prayer hall) found among the Buddhist caves Hindu Architecture:

Kailasanatha Temple:

• Built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III in the 8th century 
• Exemplifies Dravidian architecture 
• Resembles Mount Kailash 
• Free-standing, multi-storeyed temple carved from a single rock 

Dashavatara Cave: Monolithic mandapa (pillared hall) with sculptural panels depicting the ten avatars of Vishnu 

Inscriptions:

• Grant inscription of Dantidurga of the Rashtrakuta dynasty 
• Inscriptions on the Kailash temple 
• Inscriptions in the Jain cave Jagannatha Sabha naming monks and donors 

Cave Paintings: Cave paintings are also present at Ellora

Udaigiri Caves

Near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh:

• Rock-cut caves: One cave is dedicated to Jainism, while 23 are dedicated to Hinduism. 
• Iconography: Features from Vaishnavism, Shaktism, and Shaivism. 
• Relief sculpture: Depicts Vishnu in his incarnation as the man-boar Varaha. 
• Inscriptions: From the Gupta dynasty, specifically during the reigns of Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I. 
• Jaina and Hindu cave inscriptions: Includes one of the oldest Jaina inscriptions dating back to 425 CE. 
• Heliodoros Garuda Pillar: Located near Udaygiri in Besnagar, dedicated to Vashudeva. 

Vallabhi

History of Vallabhipur:

• Vallabhipur is located in the Bhavnagar district of Saurashtra, Gujarat. 
• It was the capital of the Maitraka Dynasty from 480 to 775 CE. 
• The dynasty was founded by Senapati Bhatarka. 
• Vallabhipur was known as a centre of learning and had many Buddhist monasteries. 
• In the 7th century, the Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Yijing visited the site. 
• The second Jaina council, led by Devardhi, took place in the 6th century CE, during which Jaina scriptures were finalized in their current form. 

Varanasi/ Banaras/ Kasi

Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh:

• Historical Significance: Varanasi was the capital of Kashi Mahajanapada in the 6th century BC. 
• Center of Learning: The city has been a center of education for Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains, with teachings of the Vedas and Upanishads being imparted in ashrams. 
• Buddha's First Sermon: Nearby at Sarnath, Buddha delivered his first sermon. 
• Pilgrimage and Pilgrims: Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited Varanasi and recognized it as a hub of religious and artistic activities. 
• Jain Heritage: The Parshvanath Jain temple is located in Varanasi. 
• Bhakti Movement: In medieval times, several Bhakti saints such as Kabir, Ravidas, and Tulsidas were associated with Varanasi. 
• Jyotirlinga Site: Varanasi is home to one of the 12 Jyotirlinga sites, the Kashi Vishwanath temple, significant for Hindu salvation beliefs. 
• Music Tradition: The Banaras Gharana of Hindustani Classical Music originated here. 

Sarnath

Location and Significance:

• Sarnath, near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, is where Buddha first taught the Dharma after his enlightenment. 
• It is one of the four most important Buddhist pilgrimage sites, alongside Kushinagar, Bodh Gaya, and Lumbini. 
• Sarnath is also the birthplace of the eleventh Tirthankara of Jainism, and a temple dedicated to him is located here. 

Historical Accounts:

• Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang visited Sarnath and found monasteries and monks studying the Hinayana tradition. He also mentioned a stupa built by Ashoka. 

Artistic and Cultural Heritage:

• Sarnath was a center for the arts, particularly during the Gupta period, known for the Sarnath school of art. 
• The area is rich in Buddhist antiquities, including sculptures and architectural remains. 

Dhamek Stupa:

• The Dhamek Stupa is a prominent structure in Sarnath, featuring a solid cylinder of bricks and stone. 
• Its walls are adorned with carved figures of humans and birds, as well as inscriptions in the Brahmi script. 
• An Ashoka pillar with an edict and a lion capital stands near the stupa. 

Notable Sculptures:

• A colossal image of a Bodhisattva. 
• Various images of Buddha and Buddhist deities. 
• Images of Hindu gods such as Shiva and Brahma. 

Lion Capital on Ashokan Pillar:

• The lion capital, carved from a single block of polished sandstone, is mounted on an abacus. 
• The abacus features a frieze with high-relief sculptures of an elephant, a horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by spoked chariot wheels. 
• The wheel on the capital inspired the design of the wheel on the Indian national flag. 
• An inscription on the pillar, part of Ashoka's Edicts, reads, “No one shall cause division in the order of monks.” 

Sirpur

In Mahasamund district, Chhattisgarh, there are various ancient monuments representing Hindu, Buddhist (Vaishnavism, Shaivism), and Jain traditions. This area was once the ancient capital of South Koshal, known as Shreepur. 

Hindu Monuments:

• Lakshmana Temple:. well-preserved brick temple built in the 7th century AD by Vasata, dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The temple features a garbagriha (sanctum), antarala (vestibule), and a mandapa (hall). 
• Other Hindu monuments in the area include the Rama Temple and the Gandheshwar Temple.

Buddhist Monuments:

• Includes viharas (monasteries) and statues of Buddha, Padmapani, and Avalokiteshvara. 
• There are also syncretic finds that blend Hindu and Buddhist elements. 

Jain Monuments:

• Ruins of a Jain basadi (shrine) and monastery have been found. 
• A bronze image of Adinatha, the first Tirthankara, has also been discovered. 

Sittanavasal Caves

In the Pudukkottai district of Tamil Nadu, there are ancient sites from the Meghalithic period and Jain caves. 

Burials include: 

• Stone circles 
• Cist burials 
• Urn burials 

Other findings: 

• Pottery 
• Glass manufacturing site 
• Iron objects 
• Sittanavasal Cave is a notable Jain cave with paintings and sculptures. 
• A temple cave in the area is dated to the Pallava King Mahendravarman I (580–630 AD). 

Paintings in the cave:

• Mural painting using the fresco-secco technique. 
• Depictions include: 
• A lotus pond with lotus flowers 
• People collecting lotuses from the pond 
• Dancing figures 
• Animals such as fish, buffaloes, and elephants 

Kanchipuram

Kanchipuram District, Tamil Nadu

• Historical Significance: Kanchipuram was the capital of the early Chola and Pallava dynasties. 
• Art and Architecture: The district is renowned for its rich heritage in art, architecture, and learning. 
• Notable Temples:
  • Kailasanathar Temple: Built by Pallava King Rajasimha, this temple is a significant example of early Dravidian architecture. 
  • Vaikuntha Perumal Temple: Another important religious site in the area. 
• Religious Centre: Kanchipuram was a centre for Jainism and Buddhism, known for its educational institutions called Ghatikas. 
• Vaishnavite and Shaivite Activity: The district was a hub for the religious and literary activities of Bhakti saints, Alvars, and Nayanars. 
• Handicrafts: Kanchipuram is famous for its hand-woven silk sarees, a testament to the region's artisanal skills. 

Shravanabelagola

Shravanabelagola, situated near Channarayapatna in the Hassan district of Karnataka, has been a significant center for Jain art, architecture, religion, and culture for over two thousand years. 
The site features two hills, Chandragiri and Vindhyagiri. It is believed that around 2,000 years ago, Acharya Bhadrabahu, one of the earliest great Jain Acharyas, and his disciple Chandragupta Maurya meditated in this area. 
Chandragupta Maurya, the renowned emperor who ruled a vast part of India, later settled in this region and is said to have died here in 298 BCE after becoming a Jain monk and adopting an ascetic lifestyle. 

• On the smaller Chandragiri hill, visitors can find Jain temples and the tomb of Chandragupta Maurya, a notable patron of Jainism. 
• The smaller Chandragiri hill also features Jain temples and memorials dedicated to various monks and Sravakas who have meditated there since the fifth century AD, including the last king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. 

Monolith of Lord Gomateshwara:

• The 58-feet (18 m) tall monolithic statue of Lord Gomateshwara, a Jain saint and the son of Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara of Jainism, is nestled between the Vindhyagiri and Chandragiri Hills. 
• Carved from a single block of granite, this statue is considered one of the world’s largest monolithic statues. 
• It was constructed around 983 CE during the Western Ganga dynasty by the minister and commander Chavundaraya. 
• The Mahamastakabisheka festival, held once every 12 years, involves an elaborate ritual of anointing the Gommateshwara statue with various substances and attracts devotees from around the world. 

Inscriptions:

• Over 800 inscriptions have been found at Shravanabelagola, dating from 600 AD to 1830 AD. 
• These inscriptions, written in Kannada and Prakrit, are primarily located on Chandragiri and Vindhyagiri Hill, as well as in the town. 
• Many inscriptions document the rise and power of various dynasties, including the Western Ganga Dynasty, Rashtrakutas, Hoysala Empire, Vijayanagara Empire, and the Wodeyar dynasty. 

Gommateshwara statue, Akkana Basadi, Chandragupta Basadi, Chamundaraya Basadi, Parshvanath Basadi and inscriptions of Shravanabelagola group of monuments are listed as Adarsh Smarak Monument by Archaeological Survey of India.

Mount Abu

Mount Abu is a popular hill station located in the Aravalli Range in the Sirohi district of Rajasthan. It is known for its cool climate and beautiful scenery. Mount Abu is also famous for its numerous Hindu and Jain temples, which attract many visitors. 

Jain Temples:

• Dilwara Temples: These temples are renowned for their intricate carvings and are made of white marble. They were built between the 11th and 13th centuries CE and are considered a masterpiece of Jain architecture. 
• Vimal Vasahi Temple: This is the oldest temple in the Dilwara complex, built in 1021 CE by Vimal Shah. It is dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankara, Adinatha, and showcases exquisite craftsmanship. 

Hindu Temples:

• Adhar Devi Temple: This unique temple is carved out of solid rock and is dedicated to the goddess Adhar Devi. It is located amidst picturesque surroundings. 
• Shri Raghunathji Temple:. sacred temple dedicated to Lord Rama, known for its serene ambiance and religious significance. 
• Achaleshwar Mahadeva Temple: This temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is famous for its spiritual importance and tranquil setting. 
• Gaumukh Temple:. lesser-known temple that features a natural rock formation resembling a cow's mouth, adding to its uniqueness and charm. 

Deogarh

In Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh:

• Dashavatara Temple:
• Dates back to the Gupta period. 
• Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, 
• One of the earliest known Panchyatana temples. 
• Architectural Style: Nagara style with the early development of the Shikhara type of temples. 
• Features carved figurines of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna on the doorway to the sanctum sanctorum. 
• Depicts Anantshayi Vishnu reclining on a serpent. 
• The sculpture on the temple showcases the classical Gupta style. 
• The fort on the hill of Deogarh is prominently marked by a cluster of Jain temples. 

Khajuraho

Khajuraho Group of Monuments:

• Location: Chhatarpur district, Bundelkhand region, Madhya Pradesh. 
• Description:. collection of Hindu and Jain temples renowned for their intricate sculptures. 
• Notable Temples:
  • Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (most detailed, dedicated to Lord Shiva) 
  • Lakshman Temple (dedicated to Lord Vishnu) 
  • Chaturbhuja Temple (dedicated to Lord Vishnu) 
  • Chaunsath Yoginis Temple 
  • Chitragupta Temple (dedicated to the Sun god) 
  • Adinatha Jain Temple 
• UNESCO Status: Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 
• Historical Background: Built by the Chandella rulers between the 10th and 12th centuries. 
• Architectural Style: Nagara style, characterized by intricate stone work. 
• Material: Initially built with sandstone; later, granite was used. 
• Structure: No enclosing wall; temples are set on high platforms (jagati) adorned with bands of sculptures. 
• Shikhara (spire): Composed of multiple miniature shikharas (Urisingas) with an amalaka (sacred stone) on top. 
• Layout: Panchayatana style, with temples aligned east to west. 
• Temple Components: Include mukha-mandapa (entrance porch), mandapa (hall), antarala (vestibule), and garbha-griha (sanctum). 
• Circumambulation Path: Features intricate carvings. 
• Shikhara Segmentation: Divided into seven segments. 
• Carving Themes: About 10% depict sexual themes; the rest showcase daily life activities such as women grooming, games, dance, and scenes of musicians, potters, and farmers. 
• Cavalry Depictions: Notable for large-scale representations of horsemen, marking the decline of chariot imagery. 

Mathura

In Mathura District, Uttar Pradesh:

• Centre for Craft and Trade: Mathura was a hub for various crafts and trade, particularly known for its textiles. 
• Trade Route Junction: Mathura was strategically located at the junction of important trade routes, Uttarpatha (Northern route) and Dakshinapatha (Southern route), facilitating trade and commerce. 
• Religious Centre: Mathura was an important religious centre for Buddhism, Jainism, and early forms of Hinduism. 
• Southern Capital of the Kushana Empire: Mathura served as the southern capital and was a centre of the Mathura School of Arts under Kushana patronage, known for its distinctive art and culture. 
• Pottery Wares: Different types of pottery wares such as Black Red Ware (BRW), Painted Grey Ware (PGW), and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) have been found in the region, indicating the period's pottery styles and practices. 
• Sonkh Archaeological Site: At Sonkh, near Mathura, evidence of PGW, BRW, and grey ware has been found, along with post-holes and a double ditch, suggesting early urbanization during the Kushana period. 
• Specialized Crafts: The region was known for specialized crafts such as the manufacture of terracotta figurines, copper and iron working, and bead making, indicating a diverse and skilled artisanal community. 

Shravasti

Shravasti District, Uttar Pradesh:

• Historical Significance: Once the capital of the Kosala Mahajanapada in the 6th century BC, Shravasti was a major center for Buddhists and Jainas. 
• Trade and Culture: Located on northern trade routes, the area was rich in ancient artifacts like idols, inscriptions, stupas, and viharas. 
• Jain Heritage: Birthplace of Tirthankara Sambhavanath in Jainism. 
• Xuanzang's Visit: The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang found the city in ruins during his travels. 
• Archaeological Findings: Evidence of PGW and NBPW cultures with structural remains like wattle-and-daub and mud huts from PGW levels. 

Patlaliputra

Ancient History:

• Ancient Capital of Magadha: Patna was the ancient capital of Magadha until the 5th century BC when Ajatashatru moved the capital to Pataliputra. 
• Strategic Location: Patna's location at the confluence of the Ganges, Gandhaka, and Son rivers formed a "jaldurga," helping it dominate riverine trade in the Indo-Gangetic plains during the Magadha period. 
• Trade and Commerce Hub: The city was a centre of trade and commerce, attracting merchants and intellectuals. 
• Archaeological Findings: Excavations in Kumharar (Patna) have revealed large fortification walls, including wooden trusses. 

Capital of the Maurya Dynasty: 

• Greek Ambassador Megasthenes: Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, resided in Patna and left a detailed account of the city in his work "Indica." 
• Buddhist and Jain Centre: Patna was a flourishing centre for Buddhism and Jainism. The third Buddhist council during Ashoka's reign and the first Jain council were held here. 
• Kamaldah Jain Temple: The Kamaldah Jain temple, the oldest Jain temple in Patna, is believed to be built on the site where Jain acharya Sthulabhadra spent his last days. 
• Capitals of Various Dynasties: Patna served as the capital for the Nandas, Mauryans, Sungas, Guptas, and Palas. 
• Xuanzang's Visit: The city was largely in ruins when visited by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang in the 7th century. 
• Sher Shah's Capital: Sher Shah made Pataliputra his capital and renamed it Patna. 

Vaishali

In Bihar:

• Capital city of the Licchavi, considered one of the first examples of a republic, in the Vrijji Confederacy Mahajanapada. 
• Important place for Jain and Buddhist religions. 
• Here in 599 BCE, the 24th Jain Tirthankara, Mahavira, was born and brought up in Kundagrama in the Vaisali republic. 
• During Bimbisara's reign, Gautama Buddha preached his last sermon before his death in 483 BCE. 
• In 383 BCE, the Second Buddhist council was convened here by King Kalasoka. 
• An Ashokan Pillar is found here, topped by a single lion. 
• Mentioned by Faxian (4th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th century CE). 
• Renowned as the land of Amrapali, the great Indian courtesan, who appears in many folktales and Buddhist literature, and was said to become a disciple of Buddha. 

Rajgir / Rajagriha

Rajgriha:

• Rajgriha , located in the Nalanda district of Bihar, was the ancient capital of Magadha until the 5th century BC when Ajatashatru moved the capital to Pataliputra. 
• The city was surrounded by five hills, making it impregnable. 
• Rajgriha is mentioned in Buddhist and Jain scriptures and is associated with the lives of both Buddha and Mahavir. 
• Gautama Buddha spent several months meditating and preaching in Rajgriha, which was also the venue of the first Buddhist council. 
• Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang wrote about Rajgriha in their accounts. 

Pratishthana (Paithan)

Paithan (Aurangabad district, Maharashtra): 

• Capital of the Satavahana dynasty (2nd century BC to 2nd century AD). 
• Mentioned in the 1st century AD Greek text, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and in Ashoka's Rock Edicts. 
• Known as an emporium of trade during ancient times. 
• Birthplace of the saint Eknath. 
• Famous today for Paithani silk saris. 
• Renowned as an ancient Digambar Jain atishay kshetra, a pilgrimage site known for miracles. 
• The temple in Paithan is dedicated to Munisuvrata, the 20th Jain Tirthankara. 

Saketa/ Ayoddhya

Location and Historical Significance:

• Ayodhya is situated on the right bank of the Sarayu River in the Faizabad district of Uttar Pradesh. 
• It was the southern capital of the ancient Mahajanapada Kosala, with another capital at Savatthi (Sravasti). 
• Kosala was eventually incorporated into the larger kingdom of Magadha. 

Religious Importance:

• Ayodhya is revered as the birthplace of the first and fourth Jain Tirthankaras. 
• The Buddhist text Majjhima Nikaya refers to the Buddha as a Kosalan, indicating the region's significance in early Buddhism. 
• Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, also taught in Kosala. 

Historical Figures:

• King Mahakosala of Kosala expanded the kingdom by integrating the neighboring kingdom of Kashi. 
• Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Prasenajit, who was a follower of the Buddha. 

Archaeological Findings:

• During the NBPW phase, evidence of houses made of burnt brick and terracotta ring wells has been found. 
• A grey terracotta figure of a Jaina saint, dating back to the 4th or 3rd century BCE, is one of the earliest Jain images discovered in Ayodhya. 
• In later periods, various coins and terracotta sealings have been unearthed, including punch-marked coins, uninscribed cast coins, and inscribed copper coins. 
• Rouletted ware indicates trade links with eastern India, where this type of pottery is commonly found. 

Mythological Connection:

• Ayodhya is also linked to Hindu mythology as the birthplace of Lord Rama, further enhancing its historical and cultural significance. 

Hastinapur

In Meerut district, UP.

• Capital of Kuru. 

Jaina tradition: Place where Rishabha, the first tirthankara, lived. 

• Mahavira visited. 
• OCP followed by PGW. 

Habitation:

• Wattle-and-daub and mud huts. 
• Unbaked bricks. 
• Chert and jasper weights found. 
• Horse bones found. 

2nd century BCE–3rd century CE: (Urbanisation)
Pottery:

• Wheel-turned red ware. 
• Designs such as fish, leaves, flowers, svastikas, triratnas, loops, circles, and other geometric patterns. 

Habitation:

• Planed settlement. 
• Burnt brick, ring well found. 

Artefacts:

• Objects: iron, copper, ivory, terracotta figurines. 
• rings and beads potsherds and seal 
• Coins– Yaudheyas and Kushana 
• Terracotta: Humped bull torso of the bodhisattva Maitreya 

Besnagar

• Vidisha is a very old city close to Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. 
• The city was once known as Besnagar and Bhilsa and was the capital of the Sunga dynasty. 
• Besnagar is mentioned in important Buddhist, Jain, and Brahmanical texts. 
• Heliodorus Pillar, also known as the Besnagar or Garuda Pillar, is a large stone column made from a single piece of stone. 
• It was put up around 113 BCE by Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador, who was sent by an Indo-Greek king to the court of a Shunga king. 
• The pillar is topped with a sculpture of Garuda, a mythical bird. 
• An inscription on the pillar says it was erected in honor of god Vasudeva by Heliodorus. 
• The Udayagiri Caves are located nearby, and the ancient Buddhist complex of Sanchi is also close to Vidisha. 

Pawapuri

Pawapuri: A Sacred Site for Jains

• Pawapuri, located in the Nalanda district of Bihar, is a holy site for Jains.
• It is renowned as the place where Lord Mahavira attained nirvana and is a significant pilgrimage destination for Jains.

Jal Mandir:

• The Jal Mandir marks the exact spot where Lord Mahavira was cremated.
• The main deity of this beautiful temple is a very old "Charan Paduka" (footwear) of Lord Mahavira.
• It is believed that this temple was built by King Nandivardhan, the elder brother of Lord Mahavira.

Kundalpur

Kundalpur is a village in the Nalanda district of Bihar, situated just 1.6 km away from the historical ruins of Nalanda.

• The Digambar sect of Jains believes that Lord Mahavir, the 24th and last Tirthankar, was born in this village.
• Kundalpur is home to beautiful temples dedicated to Mahavira, Rishabhdev, and Gautam Swami, along with many other ancient temples.
• The current Jain temple in Kundalpur was built recently.
• In a separate building, there are images of 72 Jinas displayed for offerings.

Parasnath

Parasnath Hill is a mountain peak in the Parasnath Range, located in the eastern part of the Chota Nagpur Plateau, within the Giridih district of Jharkhand, India.

• The hill is named after Lord Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara in Jainism.
• Jains refer to this hill as Sammed Sikhar.
• Out of the 24 Tirthankaras in Jainism, 20 are said to have attained nirvana on Parshvnatha Hills.
• On the mountain, there are the Shikharji Jain temples, which are an important tirthakshetra, or Jain pilgrimage site.

Girnar

Girnar Hill: A Sacred Site in Junagarh District, Gujarat

• Location: Girnar Hill is situated near Junagadh in the Girnar district of Gujarat.
• Temples: The hill is home to numerous Jain and Hindu temples that are of great religious significance.
• Jain Temples:. group of Jain temples is located on Mount Girnar. These temples are sacred to both the Digambara and Svetambara sects of Jainism.
• Neminath Temple: The largest temple in the group is dedicated to Neminath, also known as Arishtanemi, who is the 22nd Tirthankara in Jainism. It is believed that Neminath attained salvation at this spot.

Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka:

• The rock edicts are inscribed on a black granite rock in Brahmi script.
• Inscriptions by Rudradaman I: Around 150 CE, Rudradaman I, the Saka ruler of Malwa and a member of the Western Kshatrapa dynasty, added inscriptions in Sanskrit on the same rock.
• Earliest Sanskrit Inscription: The earliest Sanskrit inscription mentions the renovation of Sudarshana Lake, originally built by Pusyagupta, the provincial governor under Chandragupta Maurya.
• Inscription Referencing Skandagupta: Another inscription dating to around 450 CE refers to Skandagupta, a ruler of the Gupta Empire.

Palitana

Palitana Jain Temples:

• Location: Bhavnagar district, Gujarat
• Pilgrimage Significance: Major center for Jains, especially in the Svetambara tradition.
• Historical Background: Adinatha, the first Jain Tirthankara, is believed to have meditated on Shatrunjaya hill, where the Palitana temples were later built.
• Tirthankara Visits: Jains believe that 23 of the 24 Tirthankaras, except Neminatha, sanctified Palitana hill by their visits.
• Number of Temples: Over 3,000 temples located on Shatrunjaya hills, intricately carved in marble.
• Historical Period: Temples were built by Jains from the 11th century onwards.
• Main Temple: Dedicated to Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), the first Tirthankara.