Aristotle and Rousseau | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Aristotle's Political Ideas

Life in Brief

• Aristotle was born around 384 BC in Macedonia. At the age of 17, he went to Athens to study under Plato at The Academy.
• After studying for about 20 years, he returned to Macedonia to tutor Alexander the Great.
• When Alexander expanded his empire, Aristotle returned to Athens and founded his own school,The Lyceum, around 335 BC.
• Unlike Plato, who emphasized philosophy, Aristotle favored experimentation and studied various subjects such as biology, earth science, cosmology, politics, philosophy, ethics, and logic.
• After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Aristotle faced charges of impiety and fled to Euboea, where he died in 322 BC at the age of 62.
• Aristotle is known as the father of Political Science and made significant contributions through his book Politics. He introduced important concepts like rule of law and deliberative democracy.

Aristotle's Theory of Ideas (Knowledge)

• Plato's View: Plato believed that ideas exist independently of the physical world and are not tied to matter. He thought the real world is the world of ideas, and philosophy is the ultimate source of knowledge.
• Aristotle's Perspective: Aristotle disagreed with Plato. He argued that there is nothing outside the physical world and that ideas are not separate from matter. According to Aristotle, ideas are present within the matter itself.
• Aristotle emphasized the importance of the physical world and rejected the notion that it is merely an illusion. He believed that understanding right and wrong does not require special knowledge, but rather common sense.
• While Plato focused on absolute wisdom, Aristotle advocated for practical wisdom. This distinction is why Plato is considered the father of Political Philosophy, and Aristotle is regarded as the father of Political Science.
• Aristotle's approach to political science involved a practical understanding of the world of matter alongside the world of ideas.

Aristotle's Theory of Citizenship

• Aristotle defines citizenship by excluding certain groups: slaves, children, women, and old people. He also considers birth and blood as criteria, emphasizing native-born adult Greek males from the propertied class.
• Citizenship, according to Aristotle, is a duty towards the state, involving active participation in affairs such as law-making and judicial matters.
• Exclusions:
  • Women are excluded because their involvement in household affairs leaves them with little time for public duties.
  • Children are deemed too immature to participate.
  • Slaves are excluded due to a lack of reason.
  • Old People are excluded because their physical condition may not allow for active participation.
• Critically, Aristotle's theory of citizenship may appear narrow and undemocratic. However, he argues that citizenship is a duty, and if citizens cannot contribute meaningfully to state affairs, their citizenship is merely formal.

Theory of Slavery

• Aristotle argues that slavery is both natural and desirable. In ancient Greece, there were two categories of slaves: 1) Natural Slaves (those deemed slaves by nature) and 2) Slaves by Law (such as prisoners of war).
• Aristotle's theory focuses on those who are slaves by nature. He believes that nature has created two types of people: 1) Those who are slaves by nature and 2) Those who are masters by nature.
• According to Aristotle, mentally strong individuals are meant to be masters, while physically strong individuals are meant to be slaves by nature. He emphasizes the importance of understanding the message of nature.
• Nature, according to Aristotle, has made some individuals physically strong to perform physical labor for extended periods, while others are mentally strong to engage in tasks requiring mental strength or reason.
• Masters possess two key qualities: reason and courage. They are responsible for making decisions and must have the courage to stand by the consequences of those decisions.
• Slaves by nature, on the other hand, lack reason and courage. Courage is crucial because without it, individuals cannot make decisions. Aristotle's theory reflects the belief that some individuals are naturally suited to be masters while others are suited to be slaves.

Theory of Property

• Aristotle critiques Plato's theory of property, specifically his idea of communism. He evaluates three systems of property:
• Common ownership with common use (communism): Aristotle argues that this system is detrimental to both property and society. When everyone's property is the same, no one takes responsibility, leading to unproductiveness and lack of motivation.
• Common ownership with individual use: This system is deemed illogical and impractical. If it were ever implemented, it would be highly exploitative.
• Individual ownership with common use: Aristotle considers this system to align with his concept of the "golden mean." He believes that individual ownership is motivating, productive, and contributes to social stability.
• Aristotle acknowledges the negative aspects of extreme property and advocates for moderate wealth. He emphasizes that individuals should contribute to the well-being of others, as humans are social animals and should play a role in society.
• His ideas resonate with Gandhi's principle of 'trusteeship,' where individuals are stewards of their wealth for the benefit of society.

Theory of Constitution

• Aristotle's theory of constitution is a key reason for his title as the father of political science. His work Politics is focused on the state, constitution, and their types, along with the concept of revolution.
• In contrast to Plato's Republic, which covers multiple subjects like education and philosophy, Aristotle's Politics addresses core issues, making it the first textbook in political science.
• Aristotle's theory is based on the analysis of 158 constitutions, while Plato's theory is based on imagination. This makes Aristotle's methodology more scientific and grounded in reality.
• Aristotle's work is considered proto-scientific due to its empirical nature and analysis of real constitutions, contributing to the foundation of political science as a discipline.

Theory of Revolution and Justice

• Aristotle identifies the feeling of inequality as a common cause of revolutions, whether in tyranny or aristocracy. He emphasizes the importance of the ruling class ensuring that people do not feel unequal, whether the inequality is real or perceived.
• He discusses justice in two dimensions:
• Rectificatory Justice: This is related to the system of grievance redressal administered by courts. Aristotle advocates for the principle of proportion, meaning that the penalty should be in proportion to the harm done.
• Distributive Justice: This is about the distribution of resources, honors, and awards. Aristotle again emphasizes proportionate justice, where individuals are rewarded in proportion to their contributions to society. He argues that it is unjust to treat equals unequally and also unjust to treat unequals equally.
• Aristotle's emphasis on equality and justice highlights the need for fairness in treatment and the distribution of rewards based on merit and contribution to society.

Aristotle as the Father of Political Science

• Plato is recognized as the father of political philosophy, while Aristotle is considered the father of political science. This distinction should not be taken too literally; instead, it reflects Aristotle's practical and common-sense approach.
• Whereas Plato rejected the physical world as an illusion and focused on the world of ideas, Aristotle emphasized the importance of the material world. While Plato's ideal ruler is wise in the realm of ideas, Aristotle's ruler is worldly wise.
• Aristotle is called the father of political science because he was the first to apply a scientific method, particularly the method of biology, in his study of constitutions. His classification of constitutions reflects this scientific approach.
• While Plato's Republic is encyclopedic, Aristotle's Politics centers on the theory of state and constitutions. His work is considered the first textbook in political science.
• Aristotle's ideas, such as the rule of law and deliberative democracy, have had a lasting impact on political thought. He influenced scholars across different eras, including St. Thomas Aquinas,John Locke, and Hannah Arendt.
• The assertion that "the entire western political philosophy is nothing but footnotes to Plato and Aristotle" underscores their foundational role in shaping political thought.

Rousseau’s Political Ideas

Rousseau is often regarded as the father of the French Revolution, with the slogans of liberty, equality, and fraternity tracing back to his ideas. His most significant contribution is the theory of general will or popular sovereignty. Unlike his contemporaries who celebrated science, rationality, and modernity, Rousseau emerged as a critic of these very concepts, earning him the title of a ‘thinker of paradoxes.’ His writings can be interpreted in various ways, serving as inspiration for both supporters of democracy and totalitarian regimes, as well as for liberals and socialists.

What was his concern?

Rousseau's concern lay in the psychological turmoil caused by the rapid changes of his time, including modernization, industrialization, and capitalism. He yearned for a return to nature, reflecting a deep-seated discomfort with the societal transformations occurring around him.

Theme of his Rousseau’s political philosophy

• The primary focus of Rousseau's political philosophy is the pursuit of happiness, which he believes is intrinsically linked to freedom. He argues that true freedom is the ability to act according to one's own will. In contemporary society, however, he contends that freedom is merely an illusion.
• Through his most renowned work, the SOCIAL CONTRACT, Rousseau seeks to address the challenge of restoring freedom and happiness to individuals. The book famously begins with the assertion, "Man is born free, but everywhere in chains."

Ideas of Rousseau

• Human Nature: Rousseau believes that humans are fundamentally good, driven by self-love and a natural sympathy for others.
• State of Nature: This concept represents the life of humans before the advent of modern civilization. Rousseau views the State of Nature as a state of perfect happiness and bliss, where individuals were content because they acted according to their natural instincts.
• Origin of Civilization: The origin of civilization marks the beginning of rationality in humans. Rousseau describes early humans as "Noble Savages," who were good and happy in their primitive state. However, with the development of reason, humans became depraved and discontented. Civilization introduced the notions of personal property, leading to competition and dissatisfaction. In contrast to their earlier happiness derived from the happiness of others, civilized humans became preoccupied with individual gain.
• Contract: Since modern life does not guarantee happiness, Rousseau proposes that individuals enter into a social contract. He presents two alternatives: returning to nature (which is impractical) or making changes to the existing system.

Rousseau as a Thinker of Paradoxes

• Rousseau as a liberal: Rousseau advocates for liberty and believes that property is essential for a good life.
• Rousseau as a socialist: Rousseau argues that private property is a significant cause of social inequalities. He inspires socialists by emphasizing the need for societal change.
• Rousseau as a champion of democracy: He supports direct democracy, asserting that true freedom comes from being governed by laws that individuals create for themselves.
• Rousseau as an inspiration for totalitarians: Rousseau's concept of the general will suggests that the state represents the collective will of the people, and laws made by the state are always right. This idea can be interpreted to justify the imposition of laws on individuals for their own freedom.
• Rousseau as an idealist: His notion of the real will is a metaphysical idea, highlighting the importance of the collective over the individual.