Changing modes of production in Indian agriculture | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Introduction of Modern Technology in Agriculture and Its Societal Impact

• Changing Agricultural Landscape: The integration of new technology into agriculture has fundamentally transformed the way farming is conducted. It has shifted the focus from predominantly land-based production to the incorporation of various other resources.
• Market-Acquired Resources: Nowadays, resources like tractors, mechanized ploughs, pump sets, power threshers, and more are acquired through the market, making it possible for individuals without inherited land to become landowners.
• Transformation of Landownership: Traditional landowning classes are undergoing significant changes. Previously, most landowners inherited their land, as land market development was limited. However, this has evolved over time.
• Restructuring of Agrarian System: Land reforms, the Green Revolution, and changing production modes have led to the emergence of a new class of farmers with diverse skills and backgrounds, including individuals from civil and military services who invest their savings in agriculture.
• Gentleman Farmers: This new breed of farmers attracts educated individuals who see agriculture as a viable vocation. Increased profitability in agriculture is a major driving force. These farms are run like modern business organizations, distinguishing them from traditional agricultural systems.
• Capitalist Farmers: Another noteworthy development in independent India is the emergence of capitalist farmers. The extent of capitalism in Indian agriculture is a subject of debate, but there is a clear trend towards the infusion of capital.
• Transformation from Peasant Farms to Capitalist Farms: Traditional peasant family farms are gradually being replaced by commercial capitalist farms. Rich peasants have existed historically, but they couldn't be considered capitalist farmers due to the absence of significant capitalist influence in agriculture.
• Forces Driving Capitalism in Agriculture: New technology, agricultural development schemes, and access to resources like high-yield seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, credit, and improved transportation have enabled a section of rich peasants to become powerful capitalist farmers.
• Employment of Wage Laborers: Capitalist farmers hire wage laborers to meet their agricultural requirements. These laborers are the actual cultivators of the land, while the capitalist farmers seek to profit from agricultural production.
• Economic Implications: The emergence of capitalist farmers has enhanced agricultural efficiency and productivity, contributing to overall industrial growth and development. However, it has also exacerbated income inequalities among agrarian classes, leading to rural unrest.

In summary, the introduction of modern technology and capitalist farming practices has brought about significant changes in India's agrarian social structure, impacting both agricultural productivity and socioeconomic disparities in rural areas.

Some Studies on mode of productions in Indian agriculture

Ashok Rudra's Perspective

• Rudra suggests that there is a partial presence of capitalism in Indian agriculture.
• He points out that true capitalists typically respond directly to market demand. However, in Indian agriculture, there is a tendency to produce for the market but with a focus on convenience rather than maximizing profits.
• Rudra notes that a significant portion of land is dedicated to cash crops, but the income derived from these crops remains relatively low.
• He argues that this lack of input-output rationalization and the reinvestment of profits into non-agricultural areas indicate a partial capitalist orientation.
• Additionally, Rudra observes that profits from agriculture are often spent on rituals and status consolidation rather than being reinvested in farming, further suggesting a partial capitalist approach.

Utsa Patnaik's Perspective

• Patnaik presents the view that Indian agriculture is still in a pre-capitalistic phase, characterized by a preparatory stage before full-fledged capitalism.
• She highlights that despite the availability of technology, there is a reliance on family labor rather than skilled labor in agriculture.
• Patnaik argues that farming communities in India primarily function as pressure groups and do not exercise significant control or influence over power dynamics.
• She asserts that the entire Indian economy is non-capitalist, and while there are some pockets of pre-capitalism, true capitalism is not the dominant mode.
• Patnaik cautions against generalizing that Indian agriculture has transitioned fully into capitalism, emphasizing the presence of various stages of development within the sector.

In summary, these two perspectives present nuanced views on the state of capitalism in Indian agriculture. Rudra suggests a partial presence of capitalism, while Patnaik argues that India is still in a pre-capitalistic phase with limited capitalist elements. These viewpoints highlight the complexity and diversity of India's agricultural landscape.