From the Beginning of Time Class 11 History

 Page 1


 
Theme1 From the Beginning of Time 
Beginning of human existence 
 
First man-like creatures originated                                                                     Modern humans originated 
 (5.6 mya) (160,000 years ago) 
   Sources 
 
 Fossils                                           stone tools cave paintings 
• Fossils, stone tools and cave paintings help us to understand early human history. 
• About 200 years ago, many scholars refused to accept these remains.  
• This was due to their belief in the Old Testament of the Bible. 
• According to this, human origin was regarded as an act of Creation by God.  
• In 1856, workmen who were quarrying for limestone in the Neander valley (Germany) found a skull 
and some skeletal fragments.  
• They handed over their find over to Carl Fuhlrott, a local naturalist. 
• He took the material to anatomist HermanSchaaffhausen at Bonn University. 
• They jointly published a paper claiming that this skull represented a form of human that was 
extinct.  
• On 24 November 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species.  
• He argued that humans had evolved from animals 
The Story of Human Evolution 
• The story of human evolution is enormously long and complicated  
• By about 24 mya,there emerged a sub group amongst primates called hominoids.(In Asia and 
Africa)  
 
• This included apes and humans.  
 
• Hominids were evolved from hominoids and share certain common features. There are major 
differences between the two also.  
                         Hominoids                                                                Hominids 
 
 
 
 
 
                                   1                
Smaller brain, larger body 
Longer period of infant 
development and dependency 
Do not have a tail 
Quadrupeds 
 
Upright posture  
Bipedal locomotion 
Large brain,  
Specialization of hand 
 
Page 2


 
Theme1 From the Beginning of Time 
Beginning of human existence 
 
First man-like creatures originated                                                                     Modern humans originated 
 (5.6 mya) (160,000 years ago) 
   Sources 
 
 Fossils                                           stone tools cave paintings 
• Fossils, stone tools and cave paintings help us to understand early human history. 
• About 200 years ago, many scholars refused to accept these remains.  
• This was due to their belief in the Old Testament of the Bible. 
• According to this, human origin was regarded as an act of Creation by God.  
• In 1856, workmen who were quarrying for limestone in the Neander valley (Germany) found a skull 
and some skeletal fragments.  
• They handed over their find over to Carl Fuhlrott, a local naturalist. 
• He took the material to anatomist HermanSchaaffhausen at Bonn University. 
• They jointly published a paper claiming that this skull represented a form of human that was 
extinct.  
• On 24 November 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species.  
• He argued that humans had evolved from animals 
The Story of Human Evolution 
• The story of human evolution is enormously long and complicated  
• By about 24 mya,there emerged a sub group amongst primates called hominoids.(In Asia and 
Africa)  
 
• This included apes and humans.  
 
• Hominids were evolved from hominoids and share certain common features. There are major 
differences between the two also.  
                         Hominoids                                                                Hominids 
 
 
 
 
 
                                   1                
Smaller brain, larger body 
Longer period of infant 
development and dependency 
Do not have a tail 
Quadrupeds 
 
Upright posture  
Bipedal locomotion 
Large brain,  
Specialization of hand 
 
 
 
Hominids belong to a family known as Homindae. Hominids are further divided in to branches 
(genus) of which Australopithecus and Homo are important 
Hominids 
 
 
 
? Latin word ‘austral’ 
meaning ‘Southern’ 
? Greek word’pithekos’ 
Meaning ‘ape’. 
? They retained many features of apes. 
? They have a small brain size, heavier jaws 
and larger teeth. 
? Fossils discovered from Olduvai Gorge in 
East Africa 
? 5.6 mya 
? Latin word Homo 
Meaning ‘man’ 
? They have larger brain, jaws with a 
reduced outward protrusion and smaller 
teeth. 
? 2.5 mya. 
 
Types of Homo 
Types of Homo Meaning Fossils found 
Homo habilis 2.2mya Tool maker Omo,Ethiopia,Olduvai Gorge in East Africa 
Homo erectus 1.8 mya Upright man Africa and Asia 
Homo Sapiens 0.8 mya Wise man Africa ,Asia and Europe 
 
Fossils of Homo sapiens. 
 
? The earliest fossils of Homo sapiens from Europe have been found in Heidelberg, Germany and 
were called Homo heildelbergensis.  
 
? Fossils found in Neander valley were categorized as Homo neanderthalensis  
 
Benefits of Bipedalism (Erect position) 
 
1. Carrying objects- upright posture freed the arms to carry various objects(including offspring)  
 
2. Visual surveillance -standing up provided better view of surroundings  
 
3. Long distance walking was more efficient for biped than for a quadruped. (during  hunting 
and foraging)  
             4.    Less energy is consumed while waking when compared to the movement of the quadruped 
 
                                   2             
 
Australopithecus Homo 
Page 3


 
Theme1 From the Beginning of Time 
Beginning of human existence 
 
First man-like creatures originated                                                                     Modern humans originated 
 (5.6 mya) (160,000 years ago) 
   Sources 
 
 Fossils                                           stone tools cave paintings 
• Fossils, stone tools and cave paintings help us to understand early human history. 
• About 200 years ago, many scholars refused to accept these remains.  
• This was due to their belief in the Old Testament of the Bible. 
• According to this, human origin was regarded as an act of Creation by God.  
• In 1856, workmen who were quarrying for limestone in the Neander valley (Germany) found a skull 
and some skeletal fragments.  
• They handed over their find over to Carl Fuhlrott, a local naturalist. 
• He took the material to anatomist HermanSchaaffhausen at Bonn University. 
• They jointly published a paper claiming that this skull represented a form of human that was 
extinct.  
• On 24 November 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species.  
• He argued that humans had evolved from animals 
The Story of Human Evolution 
• The story of human evolution is enormously long and complicated  
• By about 24 mya,there emerged a sub group amongst primates called hominoids.(In Asia and 
Africa)  
 
• This included apes and humans.  
 
• Hominids were evolved from hominoids and share certain common features. There are major 
differences between the two also.  
                         Hominoids                                                                Hominids 
 
 
 
 
 
                                   1                
Smaller brain, larger body 
Longer period of infant 
development and dependency 
Do not have a tail 
Quadrupeds 
 
Upright posture  
Bipedal locomotion 
Large brain,  
Specialization of hand 
 
 
 
Hominids belong to a family known as Homindae. Hominids are further divided in to branches 
(genus) of which Australopithecus and Homo are important 
Hominids 
 
 
 
? Latin word ‘austral’ 
meaning ‘Southern’ 
? Greek word’pithekos’ 
Meaning ‘ape’. 
? They retained many features of apes. 
? They have a small brain size, heavier jaws 
and larger teeth. 
? Fossils discovered from Olduvai Gorge in 
East Africa 
? 5.6 mya 
? Latin word Homo 
Meaning ‘man’ 
? They have larger brain, jaws with a 
reduced outward protrusion and smaller 
teeth. 
? 2.5 mya. 
 
Types of Homo 
Types of Homo Meaning Fossils found 
Homo habilis 2.2mya Tool maker Omo,Ethiopia,Olduvai Gorge in East Africa 
Homo erectus 1.8 mya Upright man Africa and Asia 
Homo Sapiens 0.8 mya Wise man Africa ,Asia and Europe 
 
Fossils of Homo sapiens. 
 
? The earliest fossils of Homo sapiens from Europe have been found in Heidelberg, Germany and 
were called Homo heildelbergensis.  
 
? Fossils found in Neander valley were categorized as Homo neanderthalensis  
 
Benefits of Bipedalism (Erect position) 
 
1. Carrying objects- upright posture freed the arms to carry various objects(including offspring)  
 
2. Visual surveillance -standing up provided better view of surroundings  
 
3. Long distance walking was more efficient for biped than for a quadruped. (during  hunting 
and foraging)  
             4.    Less energy is consumed while waking when compared to the movement of the quadruped 
 
                                   2             
 
Australopithecus Homo 
 
Glaciation (Ice age) 
 
   The onset of glaciations, around 2.5 mya, brought major changes in climate vegetation. Reduction in 
temperatures rainfall and expansion of grassland led to the extinction of Australopithecus. The species 
that were better adapted to drier conditions were the representatives of Homo. 
 
Modern Human Beings 
There are 2 main theories for the origin of modern humans- Replacement model and Regional continuity 
model 
         Regional continuity model                                            Replacement model 
             (Multi regional origin)                                                  (Single region origin) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Early Humans: Ways of obtaining food 
 
Early humans would have obtained food through gathering, hunting, scavenging and fishing. 
 
• Gathering-Early humans collected plant foods such as seeds, nuts, berries, fruits and tubers.  
 
• Scavenging- Early humans scavenged or foraged for meat of animals that had died or had killed by 
other predators. Small mammals such as rodents, birds, reptiles and even insects were eaten by 
early humans.  
• Hunting-Hunting probably began by about 500,000 years ago. 
  
 
 
                                   3                
Humans evolved simultaneously 
in different parts of the World 
from local archaic humans. 
There is regional difference in 
the features of modern humans. 
Dissimilarities are due to 
differences between Homo 
heildelbergensis and Homo 
neanderthalensis 
 
 
Humans originated in Africa. 
Archaic humans were replaced by 
modern humans 
Genetic and anatomical homogeneity 
support this view 
Similarity is due to origin from a 
single region 
The earliest fossils of modern 
humans (from Omo in Ethiopia) 
support this view 
Page 4


 
Theme1 From the Beginning of Time 
Beginning of human existence 
 
First man-like creatures originated                                                                     Modern humans originated 
 (5.6 mya) (160,000 years ago) 
   Sources 
 
 Fossils                                           stone tools cave paintings 
• Fossils, stone tools and cave paintings help us to understand early human history. 
• About 200 years ago, many scholars refused to accept these remains.  
• This was due to their belief in the Old Testament of the Bible. 
• According to this, human origin was regarded as an act of Creation by God.  
• In 1856, workmen who were quarrying for limestone in the Neander valley (Germany) found a skull 
and some skeletal fragments.  
• They handed over their find over to Carl Fuhlrott, a local naturalist. 
• He took the material to anatomist HermanSchaaffhausen at Bonn University. 
• They jointly published a paper claiming that this skull represented a form of human that was 
extinct.  
• On 24 November 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species.  
• He argued that humans had evolved from animals 
The Story of Human Evolution 
• The story of human evolution is enormously long and complicated  
• By about 24 mya,there emerged a sub group amongst primates called hominoids.(In Asia and 
Africa)  
 
• This included apes and humans.  
 
• Hominids were evolved from hominoids and share certain common features. There are major 
differences between the two also.  
                         Hominoids                                                                Hominids 
 
 
 
 
 
                                   1                
Smaller brain, larger body 
Longer period of infant 
development and dependency 
Do not have a tail 
Quadrupeds 
 
Upright posture  
Bipedal locomotion 
Large brain,  
Specialization of hand 
 
 
 
Hominids belong to a family known as Homindae. Hominids are further divided in to branches 
(genus) of which Australopithecus and Homo are important 
Hominids 
 
 
 
? Latin word ‘austral’ 
meaning ‘Southern’ 
? Greek word’pithekos’ 
Meaning ‘ape’. 
? They retained many features of apes. 
? They have a small brain size, heavier jaws 
and larger teeth. 
? Fossils discovered from Olduvai Gorge in 
East Africa 
? 5.6 mya 
? Latin word Homo 
Meaning ‘man’ 
? They have larger brain, jaws with a 
reduced outward protrusion and smaller 
teeth. 
? 2.5 mya. 
 
Types of Homo 
Types of Homo Meaning Fossils found 
Homo habilis 2.2mya Tool maker Omo,Ethiopia,Olduvai Gorge in East Africa 
Homo erectus 1.8 mya Upright man Africa and Asia 
Homo Sapiens 0.8 mya Wise man Africa ,Asia and Europe 
 
Fossils of Homo sapiens. 
 
? The earliest fossils of Homo sapiens from Europe have been found in Heidelberg, Germany and 
were called Homo heildelbergensis.  
 
? Fossils found in Neander valley were categorized as Homo neanderthalensis  
 
Benefits of Bipedalism (Erect position) 
 
1. Carrying objects- upright posture freed the arms to carry various objects(including offspring)  
 
2. Visual surveillance -standing up provided better view of surroundings  
 
3. Long distance walking was more efficient for biped than for a quadruped. (during  hunting 
and foraging)  
             4.    Less energy is consumed while waking when compared to the movement of the quadruped 
 
                                   2             
 
Australopithecus Homo 
 
Glaciation (Ice age) 
 
   The onset of glaciations, around 2.5 mya, brought major changes in climate vegetation. Reduction in 
temperatures rainfall and expansion of grassland led to the extinction of Australopithecus. The species 
that were better adapted to drier conditions were the representatives of Homo. 
 
Modern Human Beings 
There are 2 main theories for the origin of modern humans- Replacement model and Regional continuity 
model 
         Regional continuity model                                            Replacement model 
             (Multi regional origin)                                                  (Single region origin) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Early Humans: Ways of obtaining food 
 
Early humans would have obtained food through gathering, hunting, scavenging and fishing. 
 
• Gathering-Early humans collected plant foods such as seeds, nuts, berries, fruits and tubers.  
 
• Scavenging- Early humans scavenged or foraged for meat of animals that had died or had killed by 
other predators. Small mammals such as rodents, birds, reptiles and even insects were eaten by 
early humans.  
• Hunting-Hunting probably began by about 500,000 years ago. 
  
 
 
                                   3                
Humans evolved simultaneously 
in different parts of the World 
from local archaic humans. 
There is regional difference in 
the features of modern humans. 
Dissimilarities are due to 
differences between Homo 
heildelbergensis and Homo 
neanderthalensis 
 
 
Humans originated in Africa. 
Archaic humans were replaced by 
modern humans 
Genetic and anatomical homogeneity 
support this view 
Similarity is due to origin from a 
single region 
The earliest fossils of modern 
humans (from Omo in Ethiopia) 
support this view 
 
 
The evidence for the planned hunting comes from some sites: 
1. Box grove in southern England 
2. Schoningen in Germany  
 
3. Dolni Vestonice in Czech Republic  
 
? Sites near rivers have been chosen by them for planned hunting. Herds of migratory animals 
crossed the river during their spring and autumn migrations. People knew the movement of these 
animals and killed them.  
Fishing -Fishing was also important, as is evident from the discovery of fish bones at different sites. 
Early Humans: From Trees, to Caves and Open-air Sites 
 
• By plotting the distribution of artefacts, we can find out the place of residence of the hominids.  
 
• Thousands of flake tools and hand axes have been excavated at Kilombe and Olorgesailie(Kenya)  
 
• In some areas, food resources were abundant and people visited repeatedly.  
 
• People would leave traces of their activities and presence, including artefacts.  
 
• The deposited artefacts would accumulate in one place.  
 
• The places where less visited would have fewer artefacts. The artefacts may have been scattered 
over the surface.  
• Between 400,000 and 125,000 years ago, caves and open-air sites began to be used.  
 
• In the Lazaret cave in southern France, a 12x4 metre shelter was built.Inside it were two hearths 
and evidence of different food sources.  
• At Terra Amata in southern France, flimsy shelters with roofs of wood and grass were built for 
short term, seasonal visits.  
• Pieces of baked clay and burnt bone along with stone tools have been found at some sites in 
South Africa.  
 
• We do not know these were the result of a natural bushfire or volcanic eruption or controlled use 
of fire.  
The uses of fire 
                                     To provide warmth and light inside caves 
 
                                           
                                                 To harden wood   
   
                                                 To scare away dangerous animals 
 
                                                 For cooking 
 
                                                 For flaking tools 
 
 
 
                             4            
Page 5


 
Theme1 From the Beginning of Time 
Beginning of human existence 
 
First man-like creatures originated                                                                     Modern humans originated 
 (5.6 mya) (160,000 years ago) 
   Sources 
 
 Fossils                                           stone tools cave paintings 
• Fossils, stone tools and cave paintings help us to understand early human history. 
• About 200 years ago, many scholars refused to accept these remains.  
• This was due to their belief in the Old Testament of the Bible. 
• According to this, human origin was regarded as an act of Creation by God.  
• In 1856, workmen who were quarrying for limestone in the Neander valley (Germany) found a skull 
and some skeletal fragments.  
• They handed over their find over to Carl Fuhlrott, a local naturalist. 
• He took the material to anatomist HermanSchaaffhausen at Bonn University. 
• They jointly published a paper claiming that this skull represented a form of human that was 
extinct.  
• On 24 November 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species.  
• He argued that humans had evolved from animals 
The Story of Human Evolution 
• The story of human evolution is enormously long and complicated  
• By about 24 mya,there emerged a sub group amongst primates called hominoids.(In Asia and 
Africa)  
 
• This included apes and humans.  
 
• Hominids were evolved from hominoids and share certain common features. There are major 
differences between the two also.  
                         Hominoids                                                                Hominids 
 
 
 
 
 
                                   1                
Smaller brain, larger body 
Longer period of infant 
development and dependency 
Do not have a tail 
Quadrupeds 
 
Upright posture  
Bipedal locomotion 
Large brain,  
Specialization of hand 
 
 
 
Hominids belong to a family known as Homindae. Hominids are further divided in to branches 
(genus) of which Australopithecus and Homo are important 
Hominids 
 
 
 
? Latin word ‘austral’ 
meaning ‘Southern’ 
? Greek word’pithekos’ 
Meaning ‘ape’. 
? They retained many features of apes. 
? They have a small brain size, heavier jaws 
and larger teeth. 
? Fossils discovered from Olduvai Gorge in 
East Africa 
? 5.6 mya 
? Latin word Homo 
Meaning ‘man’ 
? They have larger brain, jaws with a 
reduced outward protrusion and smaller 
teeth. 
? 2.5 mya. 
 
Types of Homo 
Types of Homo Meaning Fossils found 
Homo habilis 2.2mya Tool maker Omo,Ethiopia,Olduvai Gorge in East Africa 
Homo erectus 1.8 mya Upright man Africa and Asia 
Homo Sapiens 0.8 mya Wise man Africa ,Asia and Europe 
 
Fossils of Homo sapiens. 
 
? The earliest fossils of Homo sapiens from Europe have been found in Heidelberg, Germany and 
were called Homo heildelbergensis.  
 
? Fossils found in Neander valley were categorized as Homo neanderthalensis  
 
Benefits of Bipedalism (Erect position) 
 
1. Carrying objects- upright posture freed the arms to carry various objects(including offspring)  
 
2. Visual surveillance -standing up provided better view of surroundings  
 
3. Long distance walking was more efficient for biped than for a quadruped. (during  hunting 
and foraging)  
             4.    Less energy is consumed while waking when compared to the movement of the quadruped 
 
                                   2             
 
Australopithecus Homo 
 
Glaciation (Ice age) 
 
   The onset of glaciations, around 2.5 mya, brought major changes in climate vegetation. Reduction in 
temperatures rainfall and expansion of grassland led to the extinction of Australopithecus. The species 
that were better adapted to drier conditions were the representatives of Homo. 
 
Modern Human Beings 
There are 2 main theories for the origin of modern humans- Replacement model and Regional continuity 
model 
         Regional continuity model                                            Replacement model 
             (Multi regional origin)                                                  (Single region origin) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Early Humans: Ways of obtaining food 
 
Early humans would have obtained food through gathering, hunting, scavenging and fishing. 
 
• Gathering-Early humans collected plant foods such as seeds, nuts, berries, fruits and tubers.  
 
• Scavenging- Early humans scavenged or foraged for meat of animals that had died or had killed by 
other predators. Small mammals such as rodents, birds, reptiles and even insects were eaten by 
early humans.  
• Hunting-Hunting probably began by about 500,000 years ago. 
  
 
 
                                   3                
Humans evolved simultaneously 
in different parts of the World 
from local archaic humans. 
There is regional difference in 
the features of modern humans. 
Dissimilarities are due to 
differences between Homo 
heildelbergensis and Homo 
neanderthalensis 
 
 
Humans originated in Africa. 
Archaic humans were replaced by 
modern humans 
Genetic and anatomical homogeneity 
support this view 
Similarity is due to origin from a 
single region 
The earliest fossils of modern 
humans (from Omo in Ethiopia) 
support this view 
 
 
The evidence for the planned hunting comes from some sites: 
1. Box grove in southern England 
2. Schoningen in Germany  
 
3. Dolni Vestonice in Czech Republic  
 
? Sites near rivers have been chosen by them for planned hunting. Herds of migratory animals 
crossed the river during their spring and autumn migrations. People knew the movement of these 
animals and killed them.  
Fishing -Fishing was also important, as is evident from the discovery of fish bones at different sites. 
Early Humans: From Trees, to Caves and Open-air Sites 
 
• By plotting the distribution of artefacts, we can find out the place of residence of the hominids.  
 
• Thousands of flake tools and hand axes have been excavated at Kilombe and Olorgesailie(Kenya)  
 
• In some areas, food resources were abundant and people visited repeatedly.  
 
• People would leave traces of their activities and presence, including artefacts.  
 
• The deposited artefacts would accumulate in one place.  
 
• The places where less visited would have fewer artefacts. The artefacts may have been scattered 
over the surface.  
• Between 400,000 and 125,000 years ago, caves and open-air sites began to be used.  
 
• In the Lazaret cave in southern France, a 12x4 metre shelter was built.Inside it were two hearths 
and evidence of different food sources.  
• At Terra Amata in southern France, flimsy shelters with roofs of wood and grass were built for 
short term, seasonal visits.  
• Pieces of baked clay and burnt bone along with stone tools have been found at some sites in 
South Africa.  
 
• We do not know these were the result of a natural bushfire or volcanic eruption or controlled use 
of fire.  
The uses of fire 
                                     To provide warmth and light inside caves 
 
                                           
                                                 To harden wood   
   
                                                 To scare away dangerous animals 
 
                                                 For cooking 
 
                                                 For flaking tools 
 
 
 
                             4            
 
Early Humans: Making Tools 
 
• The ways in which humans make tools require greater memory and complex organizational skills.  
 
• The earliest evidence for the making and use of stone tools comes from sites in Ethiopia and 
Kenya.  
• The earliest tool makers were the Australopithecus.  
 
• We do not know whether tool making was done by men or women or both.  
• About 35,000 years ago, there were changes in human tool making.  
 
• New kinds of tools such as spear-throwers and the bow and arrow were used for killing animals.  
 
• The meat thus obtained was processed by removing the bones, followed by drying, smoking and 
storage  
 
• Thus, food could be stored for later consumption.  
 
• Trapping of fur-bearing animals and the invention of sewing needles were other changes.  
 
• The earliest evidence of sewn clothing comes from about 21,000 years ago.  
 
• The punch blade technique was introduced to make small chisel-like tools. 
 
             It was now possible to make engravings on bone, antler, ivory or Wood 
             
Modes of Communication: Language and Art 
Language: 
 
• Among living beings, it is humans alone that have a language.  
 
• There are several views on language development. They are,  
 
• 1.hominid language involved gestures or hand movements  
 
• 2.spoken language was preceded by vocal but non verbal communication  
 
• 3.human speech probably began with calls among primates  
 
 
When did spoken language emerge? It has been suggested that 
 
• 1. The brain of Homo habilis had certain features which would have made it possible for 
them to speak. Thus language may have developed as early as 2mya.  
• 2. The evolution of vocal tract was equally important. This occurred around 200,000 years ago  
 
• 3 Language developed around the same time as art, that is, around 40,000-35,000 years ago.  
Art: 
 
• Hundreds of paintings have been discovered in the caves of Lascaux (/la-sko/) and 
Chauvet(/show-vay/)in France and Altamira in Spain).(These include depictions of 
bison,horses,ibex,deer,mammoths,rhinos, lions bears, panthers, hyenas and owls.  
 
• We have no idea why they made these paintings.  
 
• One of the explanations for these paintings is ritual.  
 
• The act of painting was a ritual to ensure a successful hunt  
 
• Another explanation is that these caves were meeting places for small groups of people or 
locations for group activities. They shared hunting techniques and knowledge.  
• Thus, Paintings served as the media for passing information from one generation to the next.  
 
 
                                   5