Cholas : Economy, Society, Education and Literature | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Social Conditions During the Chola Reign

During the Chola period, social conditions experienced significant changes, particularly concerning the caste system. The caste system became increasingly rigid, leading to pronounced social distinctions among different communities. Society was primarily organized around caste, although some scholars suggest that there was a degree of cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social and religious activities.

Caste System and Social Structure

• Within Chola society, the caste system was deeply entrenched, and the principles of Varnashrama Dharma were strictly observed. The Brahmins remained at the top of the social hierarchy, enjoying considerable influence, privilege, and dominance. They resided in exclusive Brahmin villages known as Agraharams and Chaturvedi Mangalam, where they were granted tax-free lands. These Brahmins were well-versed in sacred texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas and often held prestigious positions in the government, such as Rajagur(royal guru).
• The Brahmins played a crucial role in the cultural and religious life of the community by narrating epic stories like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata at public gatherings held in Mandapas(pillared halls). Inscriptions from the period indicate that people donated lands for religious purposes, such as Irayili-Vedhavirudhi, Pattaviruthi, and Puranaviruthi. Other significant communities included the Chetties(business people),Vellalas(agriculturists),Idayars(shepherds),Kaikolars(weavers),Rathakaras(carpenters), and Paraiyas(drummers).

Valangai and Idangai Division

• Chola society was divided into two main classes:Valangai and Idangai, each with 98 sub-castes. The Valangai class comprised the wealthy and those who enjoyed government privileges, while the Idangai class consisted of workers without such privileges. The Idangai people paid various taxes, including land and house taxes. Both classes had separate temples for worship.
• Prof. K.A.N. Sastri noted the hardships faced by the Idangai sub-sects at the hands of Vanniya tenants and Brahmana and Vellala landlords, supported by government officials.Nilakanda Sastri described the origin of this division as unknown, with legends attributing it to the design of Karikala Chola or an incident where the two sections presented their disputes before a Chola king.
• During the reign of Rajaraja I, several army regiments were counted among the Valangai. A conflict between the Right and Left hand castes during the rule of Kulotunga I led to the burning of the village Rajamahendra Chaturvedi Mangalam. The Idangai people primarily worshipped Goddess Parvathi and Kali, while the Valangai people worshipped Lord Siva and Tirumal.

Position of Women

• Women in society: Women held a respected and privileged position in society. They had property rights, with upper-class women owning and disposing of property as they chose. Women were engaged in small-scale work, but their overall position did not see significant improvement.
• Dancing girls and learned women: Dancing girls of higher grades achieved social freedom and prestige through their philanthropic works. There were also learned women, and devadasis received grants and donations for economic protection. Some devadasis were married and led regular lives.
• Royal patronage: Members of the royal family, such as Sembian Mahadevi, Vanavanmadevi, and Kundavai, were religious and contributed to temple building.

Marriage:

• Monogamy was common, while polygamy was practiced by the wealthy and kings.
• Marriages took place only during the daytime.
• Dowry, known as Sridhanam or Seethanam, was not compulsory but was given to the bridegroom in the form of land, house, or cash.
• Social organization was based on blood relations, professions, religious beliefs, and environment.

Sati:

• Sati is mentioned in inscriptions, but its occurrence was rare and not a common practice in Tamil Nadu under the Cholas.
• There were women, like Sembian Madevi, who lived after their husbands and contributed significantly to religion.
• Some women conducted festivals in Siva temples on behalf of their deceased husbands.

Slave System:

• Slavery existed in society, with records indicating instances of free individuals becoming slaves to escape starvation
• Unlike the Western slave system, slavery in Tamil Nadu involved better treatment of slaves.

Food and Dress in Ancient Tamil Society

• Rice was the primary staple, accompanied by millet, various grains, pulses, gingili, and green grams. Popular dishes included curd rice, milk rice, and tamarind rice, with ghee being a common ingredient. Jain saints followed a diet of rice, roots, and bananas.
• Tamils wore simple garments made from cotton and silk. Men typically donned a dhoti and a turban, while women wore an upper garment called Kachchai and a lower garment, often draping the saree with frills on the left side of the hip. Tailoring was practiced, and mirrors and cosmetics were used.
• People also used umbrellas, adorned themselves with various flowers, and applied kumkum on their foreheads. Women’s jewelry included bangles, necklaces, armlets, waist belts, and anklets.

Amusements in Ancient Tamil Society:

• During the Chola period, people engaged in various pastimes such as cock-fighting, horse racing, elephant racing, hunting, wrestling, dance, music, and drama. These activities were integral to their leisure and entertainment.

Beliefs in Ancient Tamil Society:

• People held superstitions and blind beliefs, including a fear of ghosts. They believed that Morgosa leaves could drive away ghosts and made predictions based on the sounds made by birds.

Economic Condition

Agriculture and Industry:

• Agriculture was the central focus of the economy and the primary occupation of the people.
• The independent peasant proprietor was the backbone of social life.
• Under the Chola rulers, more lands were brought into cultivation through various efforts.
• Proper utilization of the Kaveri River's water was enhanced by the construction of large tanks, such as the Vairamegha tank at Uttaramerur.
• Canals were dug from rivers to provide irrigation for these tanks.

Rivers used for irrigation included:

• The Mudikondan River
• The Vira Chola North River
• The Madhurantaka North River
• The Vikraman River

Tanks constructed by the Chola rulers included:

• Kandaradhitha Big Tank
• Viranarayanan Tank
• Madurantaka Big Tank
• Sundara Chola Big Tank

Most people were engaged in agriculture, with land owned by individuals and communities.

• Land tenure included peasant proprietorship and other forms. Poor agricultural laborers relied solely on agriculture for their livelihood.
• Land was often given freely or donated by the ruler to Brahmins, such as in Ehabhoga villages and Devadanam land(land given to temples).
• Cattle used for cultivation were also cared for, and efforts were made to increase cultivation by reclaiming forest and waste lands.
• The Chola rulers encouraged the reclamation of forest and waste lands for agriculture.

Taxation:

• Taxes were collected from the people, with Purav later known as Irai or Kadamai being a land tax.
• Tax-free lands were referred to as Iraiyili.

The types of taxes imposed by the government included:

• Kudimai(tax collected from those who cultivated lands)
• Ankadipattam(tax on those who used water from a tank)
• Nilanirpattam(tax on those who used water from a tank)
• Kusakkanam(tax on potters)
• Tharigurai(tax on weavers)
• Ilamputchi(tax on toddy drapers)
• Tax evaders faced punishment. Land tax and other taxes were collected by Village Sabhas, and the collected taxes were deposited into the government treasury.

Weights and Measures:

• During the Chola period, various weights and measures were used for buying and selling goods.
• Grains were measured using units like pidi, alakku, ulakku, and uri.
• Cubic measures included ma, kuruni, manjadi, and kalanju.
• Linear measures were viral, jan, and mulam.

Trade

Internal Trade and Foreign Trade:

• Weavers produced cloth, blacksmiths made iron articles, and goldsmiths crafted ornaments. Internal and external trade was thriving, supported by guilds that protected merchants' interests.
• According to Nilakandasastri, metal industries and jewelers had achieved a high level of perfection. However, inscriptions provide limited information about various occupations.
• Salt pans at Kanyakumari, Variyur, and Ayturai were significant centers for salt production.

Transportation and Roads:

• Transportation was facilitated by roads maintained by local authorities. The best roads were known as ‘Peru Vali,' which connected distant regions.
• Notable roads included the Andhra road (Vadugapperuvali) and the road to Kongu (Kongupperuvali).

Trade and Guilds:

• The nanadesis were a powerful group of merchants whose activities were largely independent of political boundaries.
• The Chola region was active in foreign trade, with ships from China and Arabia visiting its ports.
• The Cholas traded with regions such as China, Indo-China, Ceylon, Sumatra, and Java.

Exports and Imports:

• Exports included goods like pearls, ivory, cardamom, pepper, perfumes, cotton textiles, and coral.
• Horses were imported from the Arabs, and those who bought horses in India and sold them to locals were known as kudirai Chetties.
• Nilakanda Sastri noted that the extensive trade described by Marco Polo and Wassaf in the 14th century had its roots in the Chola period.

Maritime Contact:

• The Chola country had maritime connections with China, South East Asian countries, Arabia, and P erse.
• Goods such as pearls, cardamom, pepper, sandalwood, cosmetics, and others were exported to foreign countries.

Barter System and Loan Practices:

• The barter system was in practice, and traders were also known as Nagarathar and Manikiramattar.
• Bonds were used to secure loans.

Coins:

• Various coins made of gold, silver, and copper were in circulation.
• Coins featured symbols like the tiger and fish.
• Coins such as Kalanju, Manjadi, and Kachchanam were in use.Pon wasa gold coin, and kasu was a copper coin.

Literature:

• The Chola period was notable for its contributions to Tamil literature, with the emergence of many great scholars.
• Notable scholars included Kambar, Sekkilar, Meykandar, Puhalendi, Pattinathar, and Ottakkuttar.
• Professor K.A.N. Sastri described the Imperial Chola period as a creative epoch in South Indian history.

Classification of Literary Works

The literary works of this period can be classified into various categories, including:

• Saivite works
• Vaishnavite works
• Jain works
• Buddhist works
• Other works
• Grammatical works

Saivite Works:

• The devotional hymns of Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar were compiled by Nambi into seven Tirumarai during the time of Rajaraja I.
• The hymns were organized as follows:
• First three Tirumarai: Hymns of Sambandar
• Next three Tirumarai: Hymns of Appar
• Seventh Tirumarai: Hymns of Sundarar
• The seventh Tirumarai was known as Tevaram.
• Thiruvasakam, written by Manickkavasagar, was the eighth Tirumarai.
• The ninth Tirumarai consists of hymns by nine saints.
• Tirumular's Tirumantiram was the tenth Tirumarai.
• The eleventh Tirumarai includes hymns by various poets.
• Periapuranam, written by Sekkilar, was the twelfth Tirumarai and dealt with the biographies of 63 Nayanmars (Saiva Saints).
• Periapuranam was written in the 12th century A.D. by Sekkilar, a Chola minister.
• It had a significant impact on the lives and thoughts of the Tamil Saiva population.
• According to Nilakanda Sastri, the Periapuranam commemorates the great age of the Imperial Cholas and their devotion to Saivism.
• Kalladum, composed by Kalladanar, refers to miracles performed by Siva on behalf of Manikkavasagar, Idaikadar, and others, and is believed to date back to the 10th century A.D.

Vaishnavite Works:

• The hymns of twelve Alwars were compiled by Nathamuni into Nalayira Tivya Prabandham.
• The first three Alwars, namely Pei, Poykai, and Pudam, belonged to the pre-Pallava period.
• The hymns of Andal, particularly Tiruppavai, spread to South East Asia.
• Ramanuja, a prominent Vaishnavite scholar and proponent of Visistatvaidam, wrote commentaries on the Vedas.
• Kambar composed the Ramayana, a masterpiece in Tamil literature, in the twelfth century A.D.

Jain Works:

• Jivaga Chintamani, an epic written by Thiruttakka Thevar, is a Jain work that, apart from its religious content, describes nature and includes excellent similes and ethical teachings.
• Valayapathi is another Jain work.
• Neelakesi, a Jain work of unknown authorship, emphasizes ethics and non-violence (ahimsa) and consists of 894 verses.
• Udayanakumara Kaviyam contains 367 poems and is another Jain work.
• Yashodha Kavyam and Meru Manthara Puranam are additional Jain works.

Buddhist Works:

• Kundalakesi, a Buddhist work written by Nathakuthanar, narrates the life of the Buddha and critiques other religions. Only 19 poems of the Kundalakesi are extant.
• Chulamani, written by Tholamoli Thevar, is another Buddhist work that contains 2331 verses.

Grammatical Works:

• Iraiyanar Kalaviyal and Nambi Ahapporul are treatises on Akam.
• Purapporul Venbamalai is a treatise on Puram.
• Yapperunkalam and Yapperunkkalakarikai are treatises on prosody.
• Thandialankaram deals with poetics.
• Ilampuranar wrote a commentary on Tolkappiyam.
• Adiyarkku Nallar authored a commentary on Sillappathikaram, which provides valuable information.
• Virasoliyam by Budhamitra and Nannul by Pavanandhi are books on Grammar.

Other Works:

• Kalingathu Parani, written by Jeyam kondar, recounts the war that took place north of Kalinga and the exploits of Kulotunga.
• Nilakanda Sastri notes that the survival of the Kalingattupparani is due to its supreme merit. There are numerous instances in the history of Indian literature where one good book has overshadowed many inferior ones.
• Perungadai is a work by Konguvelir.
• Moovarul, composed by Ottakkuththar, the court poet of Vikrama Chola, Kulottunga II, and Rajaraja II, along with other works such as Kulothunkan Pillai, Tamil, Nalavenba, Athichoodi, Konrai Vendhan, and Nalvali, contains moral lessons.