Cholas: Polity and Administration | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Cholas

The Chola dynasty was one of the prominent Tamil dynasties in southern India, known for its significant impact on the region's history and culture. At its height, the Chola dynasty ruled over a vast maritime empire, known as the Chola Empire.

Key Points about the Chola Dynasty:

• Peak Imperialism: The Chola Empire reached its peak under the Medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE, establishing itself as a powerful force in South Asia.
• Three Crowned Kings: The Cholas were one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, alongside the Chera and Pandya dynasties. They governed varying territories until the 13th century CE.
• Heartland: The heartland of the Chola dynasty was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. At its height, the Chola Empire unified peninsular India south of the Tungabhadra River and maintained this territory as a single state for three centuries, from 907 to 1215 CE.
• Notable Rulers: Under powerful rulers like Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I, Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II, Virarajendra, and Kulothunga Chola I, the Chola Empire became a military, economic, and cultural powerhouse.
• Maritime Power: The Chola fleet represented the peak of ancient Indian maritime capacity, conducting expeditions to the Ganges, naval raids on the Srivijaya empire in Sumatra, and sending embassies to China.
• Decline: Around 1070 CE, the Cholas began to lose their overseas territories. The later Cholas (1070–1279 CE) continued to rule parts of Southern India, but the empire declined in the 13th century due to the rise of the Pandyan dynasty, which ultimately led to the Cholas' downfall.

Sources of Information

• There is limited written evidence about the Cholas before the 7th century CE. The main sources of information about the early Cholas include ancient Tamil literature from the Sangam Period, oral traditions, religious texts, temple inscriptions, and copperplate inscriptions. The later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage.
• The Cholas are mentioned in the Ashokan Edicts (inscribed between 273 BCE and 232 BCE) as one of the neighbors of the Mauryan Empire to the south. Although not subject to Ashoka, the Cholas were on friendly terms with him.
• Brief references to the Chola country, its towns, ports, and commerce can be found in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and in the works of the geographer Ptolemy.
• The Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text written down in the 5th century CE, recounts conflicts between the inhabitants of Sri Lanka and the Cholas in the 1st century BCE.

Periods of Chola History

• Early Cholas: Described in Sangam literature.
• Interregnum: Period between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya around 848 CE.
• Dynasty of Vijayalaya: Marked the beginning of the medieval Chola period.
• Later Chola Dynasty: Under Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century CE.

Early Cholas

• The Cholas are known to have been a ruling family since ancient times. They, along with the Pandyas and Cheras, are mentioned in Emperor Ashoka's Rock Edicts II and XIII. These inscriptions suggest that the Cholas were a friendly force in the south, not under the control of the Mauryan Empire.
• Sangam literature also provides valuable information about Chola chiefdoms. One of the earliest and most notable Chola kings was Karikala Chola. He is credited with founding the town of Puhar at the mouth of the Cauvery River and constructing an embankment along the river. Karikala Chola was also known for his efforts in expanding irrigation and land reclamation.
• Despite the Chola kings dating back to the Mauryan period, there is limited knowledge about their history after the Sangam era and their connection to the early medieval Cholas.

Interregnum

• There is limited information about the transition period of approximately three centuries between the end of the Sangam age (around 300 CE) and the dominance of the Pandyas and Pallavas in the Tamil region. During this time, an obscure dynasty known as the Kalabhras invaded the Tamil country, displacing the existing kingdoms and ruling over the region. The Kalabhras were eventually overthrown by the Pallava and Pandyan dynasties in the 6th century.
• Little is known about the fate of the Cholas during the three centuries that followed until the rise of Vijayalaya Chola in the 9th century. Inscriptions found in and around Thanjavur indicate that the kingdom was ruled by the Mutharaiyars/Muthurajas for three centuries. Their reign came to an end when Vijayalaya Chola captured Thanjavur from Ilango Mutharaiyar between 848 and 851 CE.
• Epigraphy and literature provide only a few glimpses of the changes that occurred within this line of kings during the long interval. It is evident that when the power of the Cholas was at its lowest and the Pandyas and Pallavas were rising to power in the north and south, the Chola dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.
• Despite their diminished power, the Cholas continued to rule over a reduced territory around Uraiyur, but only in a minor capacity. The Pandyas and Pallavas, despite their rivalry, accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of respect for their reputation. Numerous Pallava inscriptions from this period mention conflicts with the rulers of the Chola country.
• Despite their loss of influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas completely lost control of the territory around Uraiyur, their old capital. Vijayalaya Chola, when he rose to prominence, hailed from this area. An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka, bearing the Chola tiger emblem and Nagari script, further attests to the Chola presence during this time.
• Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh. These Telugu Cholas claimed descent from the early Sangam Cholas. However, it is unclear whether they had any direct relation to the early Cholas. It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish their own kingdom, away from the dominant influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas.

The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639–640 CE, wrote about the “kingdom of Culi-ya,” which is believed to be a reference to these Telugu Cholas.

Imperial Cholas

• The Chola Empire, founded by Vijayalaya Chola, marked the beginning of a remarkable period in Indian history. Emerging around 850 CE amidst the power struggle between the Pandya and Pallava empires, Vijayalaya, possibly a vassal of the Pallavas, seized Thanjavur from the Muttarayar and established the medieval Chola dynasty. Thanjavur became the capital of this burgeoning empire.
• Aditya I, the second Chola king, expanded the empire by defeating the Pallavas and the Pandyas, marrying into the Western Ganga dynasty, and occupying large territories.
• Parantaka I, in 925 CE, conquered Sri Lanka and defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty. The empire reached its zenith under Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, extending from northern Sri Lanka to the Godavari-Krishna basin and the Malabar Coast.
• Rajaraja Chola I was known for his vigorous governance, conducting land surveys, and strengthening local self-government. He built the iconic Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010 CE.
• Rajendra Chola I expanded the empire further, conquering Odisha, reaching the Ganges River, and invading the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia. He established a new capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, to commemorate his northern conquests. His reign marked the height of Chola power, with territories extending across the Ganges basin, Rajarata in Sri Lanka, and the Maldives.
• Despite facing challenges from the Western Chalukya Empire, the Cholas, under emperors like Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I, maintained dominance through military victories and strategic alliances. The Chalukyas, once a formidable rival, gradually weakened, with their power diminishing by the end of the 12th century.
• The Cholas also engaged in constant warfare with the Pandyas and the Eastern Gangas, asserting control over the eastern coast and protecting their territories in Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The empire remained stable until 1215 CE, eventually integrating into the Pandyan Empire by 1279 CE.

Throughout this period, the Chola Empire was marked by military prowess, administrative efficiency, and cultural achievements, leaving a lasting legacy in Indian history.

Overseas Conquests

• During the reigns of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors,Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola, and Kulothunga Chola I, the Chola armies launched overseas invasions targeting Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and parts of Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, Indonesia, and southern Thailand, which were under the influence of the Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century.
• Rajaraja Chola I initiated several naval campaigns leading to the capture of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and the Malabar Coast. In 1025,Rajendra Chola I conducted naval raids on the ports of Srivijaya and targeted the Burmese kingdom of Pegu.

Later Cholas (1070–1279)

• The Later Chola dynasty was marked by strong leadership from rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola, and successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III. These leaders expanded the empire by conquering regions like Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha.
• However, the period of the later Cholas, especially between 1218 under Rajaraja Chola II and ending with Rajendra Chola III, was not as powerful as the earlier Chola emperors from 850 to 1215.
• Around 1118, the Cholas lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya dynasty and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire. Despite these setbacks, the Chola dynasty quickly regained strength. Under Vikrama Chola, son of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas reclaimed Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and recovered Gangavadi from the Hoysalas.
• During the reign of Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175), the Chola Empire, although not as robust as between 850 and 1150, remained largely intact. This period saw the construction of the Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram, a testament to Chola architectural brilliance.
• Chola administration and territorial integrity remained stable and prosperous until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III. However, his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16 marked the beginning of Chola decline. The Cholas lost control of Lanka, driven out by the resurgent Sinhala power.
• As the Chola power waned, the Pandyan dynasty emerged as the dominant force in South India. The lack of a strong central administration in former Pandyan territories led to a civil war among claimants to the Pandya throne. The Cholas and Sinhalas were involved in this conflict by proxy.

Details of the Pandyan civil war and the involvement of the Cholas and Sinhalas are recorded in the Mahavamsa and the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.

Chola: Polity and Administration

Central Administration:

• At the top of the hierarchy was the emperor or king, often referred to as Ko(king) or Perumal Adigal(the great one) in inscriptions.
• The Chola throne was hereditary, with the eldest son, known as Yuvaraja(heir apparent), typically succeeding to the throne.
• The early kings’ modest titles were replaced with more grandiose ones like Raja-Rajadhiraja and Ko-Konmai-Kondan, meaning “king of kings.”
• Inscriptions portray the king as a great warrior, conqueror, and patron of the arts, often compared to gods.
• The king was supported by a council of ministers or officers called Udankuttam. The royal priest,Raja Guru, played a crucial role as the king’s advisor.
• Some kings were known to tour their realm, staying in temples to connect with the public and monitor officials.
• The administrative structure included officials of various ranks, with Perundanam for higher officials and Sirudaram for lower officials. Officers were rewarded with titles and paid through land assignments.
• The tiger was the royal emblem of the Chola kings.

Provincial Government:

• The Chola Empire was divided into principalities(under vassal chiefs) and mandalams(provinces under viceroys, usually royal princes).
• Provinces were further divided into Valanadus, Nadus, and villages, with the village being the fundamental administrative unit.
• Towns had independent administrations, governed by councils called Nagarattar, and were known as Nagaram.
• The empire comprised nine provinces(mandalams), each ruled by a viceroy appointed by the king’s relatives. Viceroys maintained regular contact with the central government and were assisted by numerous officials.
• Sabhas and Assemblies overseen the administration of different territorial divisions, with various assemblies in units like Nadu, Kurram, and Grama.

Divisions of Administration:

• The success of the Chola administration depended on the smooth operation of its administrative divisions.
• Mandalams were often named after the original names or titles of Chola kings.
• Each mandalam was subdivided into Kottams or Valanadus, which were further divided into nadu and then into villages(Urs), the final administrative units.

Administration in the Village (Local Self-Government)

The self-sufficient villages and the administrative structure that controls them were two of the most striking characteristics of the South Indian polity. At the village level, the level of autonomy was incredibly high by modern standards. The fundamental tenet of the emerging form of village autonomy was that the villagers should run the village themselves. A village assembly was established for this reason, and power was given to it.

Assemblies

The rural administration of the Chola era was overseen by three different types of assemblies (Sabhas, Urs and Nagaram) and their committees (Variyams). The village assemblies were called Ur, Sabha, and Nagaram.

Ur:

• It is a village assembly made up of all socioeconomic groups with stakes in the community or village residents who pay taxes.

Sabha:

• The Sabha was only present in the agrahara or Chaturvedimangalam of the villages of Nagaram and was solely a Brahmin assembly.
• It was a gathering of business people. Since it primarily served the needs of mercantile interests, it was more frequently found in trade centres.

Nagaram:

• It was a gathering of business people. Since it primarily served the needs of mercantile interests, it was more frequently found in trade centres.
• The Ur and Sabha can occasionally be found in the same village.

Uttaramerur Inscriptions

• The primary source of data to reconstruct the village administration of the Chola period is the Uttaramerur inscriptions, which were written by the Chola monarch Parantaka I between 919 and 921 CE and found in the Vaikunta Perumal temple at Uttaramerur in the Chengalput district of Tamilnadu.
• The conclusion of the two Uttaramerur inscriptions states that new guidelines for the committees were established so “wicked men might perish while good men might prosper.”

Committee Composition and Membership Criteria

• The Uttaramerur inscriptions provide comprehensive information on the type of committee composition, the requirements for membership in these committees, and the process used to choose these committee members.

According to the rules of 921 CE, each of the village’s thirty wards was required to nominate candidates who met the following requirements:

• Ownership of more than one-fourth Veli (roughly one acre and a half) of land
• Residency in a home constructed on one’s site
• Age between 35 and 70
• Understanding of Vedic literature

The following individuals are ineligible:

• Those who have served on any committee for the previous three years;
• Those who have served on a committee but have failed to submit their financial reports along with all of their respective relatives;
• Those who have committed adultery or other serious sins along with their relatives;
• Those who have stolen another person’s property.

Election Process

One was to be chosen for each of the thirty wards out of those who had been duly nominated by Kudavolai(pot ticket) or lot for a year in the manner specified.

Village Assembly Authority

The village assembly had significant powers, including:

• Levying taxes for village purposes and remitting taxation in special circumstances.
• Seizing land of those who did not pay the land tax.
• Resolving local disputes and declaring the guilt or innocence of the parties involved.
• Managing charitable activities and other local affairs.

Independence and Honorary Service

• The Uttaramerur inscriptions reveal that village committee members were not eligible for a salary or other form of payment for the services they provided.
• Neither the royal nor the central authority had any influence over the assemblies.
• The officers of the central government did, however, attend these meetings when important business was conducted by these assemblies, such as a change in the constitutional procedure or a change in land rights that affected the king’s revenues.

Military Management

• Elephants, cavalry, infantry, and a navy made up the Cholas’ regular army.
• Inscriptions list up to 70 regiments with names derived from royal titles.
• Sixty thousand elephants were in the Chola army.
• The Cholas typically had two different types of soldiers:
• Kaikkolar, who were royal troops paid on a regular basis by the treasury, and Nattuppadai, who were militia men used only for local defence.
• The Velaikkarars were the most dependable soldiers in the royal service within the Kaikkolar, prepared to defend the king and his cause with their lives.
• Regiments of bowmen and swordsmen were present while the swordsmen were the most permanent and dependable troops.
• Martial art called Silambam was patronised by the Chola rulers.
• Ancient and medieval Tamil texts mention different forms of martial traditions but the ultimate expression of the loyalty of the warrior to his commander was a form of martial suicide called Navakandam.
• The medieval Kalingathu Parani text, which celebrates the victory of Kulothunga Chola I and his general in the battle for Kalinga, describes the practice in detail.