Cities, Kings, and Renunciants - 1 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

The Last Days of the Buddha

The Buddha, feeling tired after a long journey, arrived at a grove near Kusinara with his disciple Ananda. As they talked about various topics, the conversation shifted to the Buddha’s approaching death. The Buddha instructed Ananda that his remains should be treated with the same honor as those of a great king. However, Ananda pleaded with him not to die in Kusinara, believing that this small, unremarkable town with mud huts in a jungle was not a fitting place for the Buddha’s final moments. He suggested more illustrious cities like Champa, Rajagriha, Shravasti, Saketa, Kaushambi, and Varanasi as more worthy locations.

• The Buddha dismissed Ananda’s concerns, explaining that Kusinara was once a magnificent city called Kusavati, ruled by the great king Maha-Sudassana. He described how Kusavati was a bustling metropolis, rich in prosperity, with the sounds of elephants, horses, chariots, and music filling the air. The city was a place of joy and abundance, comparable to Alakananda, the heavenly city of the gods. The Buddha believed it was a fitting place for his last moments.
• This dialogue between the Buddha and Ananda is found in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya. The 6th century BCE in the Ganga valley was a period of intense philosophical exploration and significant political, social, and economic transformations, as detailed in a previous chapter.
• While around 600 BCE marks the beginning of the early historical period in north India, it is essential to view this date as part of a long historical process spanning several centuries. The debate over the date of the Buddha’s death, known as the parinibbana in Buddhist tradition, is crucial for understanding the chronologies of early historical dynasties, post-Vedic texts, and the changes reflected in these texts.
• According to the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, there was a gap of 218 years between the Buddha’s parinibbana and Ashoka’s consecration. This has led to the belief that the Buddha died in 544/543 BCE, a view known as the “uncorrected long chronology.” Theravada communities in South and Southeast Asia accept this date as the beginning of the Buddhasasana or Buddhist era.
• The “uncorrected long chronology” was later modified by adjusting the date of Ashoka’s consecration, resulting in the “corrected long chronology,” which places the Buddha’s demise between 486 and 477 BCE. Another theory, the “short chronology,” based on Sanskrit and Chinese sources, suggests that 100 years passed between the Buddha’s death and Ashoka’s consecration, dating the parinibbana around 368 BCE. Recently, the dating of the Buddha’s parinibbana has been re-evaluated, with suggestions placing it between 400 and 350 BCE, based on the “lists of Elders” in the Pali chronicles.
• According to traditional accounts, the Buddha lived for about 80 years. Based on this, his birth date could be estimated to the 7th, 6th, or 5th century BCE, depending on the accepted date of his death. Most Indian scholars prefer around 480 BCE for the Buddha's parinibbana (final passing), while many Western scholars lean towards more recent dates.

The Ahraura Inscription and Dating the Buddha

• The Ahraura version of Ashoka's minor rock edict 1 may provide crucial evidence in dating the Buddha's death. This inscription indicates a 256-year gap between the Buddha's death and the edict's issuance.
• If we consider the latest possible dates, such as Ashoka's consecration in 264 BCE and the edict dating to 227 BCE, the Buddha's parinibbana would need to be placed in 483 BCE or earlier.
• This calculation supports the idea that the Buddha's death occurred around 483 BCE or possibly earlier.

Adjusting Chronologies

• If future evidence suggests a later date for the Buddha's death, it would require adjustments to the chronologies of early historical texts and events.
• Until such evidence emerges, 480 BCE remains a valid date for the Buddha's parinibbana.

Sources of Evidence: Literary and Archaeological

• Between 600 and 300 BCE, there is an opportunity to compare evidence from various literary sources.
• The Pali canon, a crucial historical source, is not uniform and consists of texts from different periods.
• The first four books of the Sutta Pitaka ( Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara Nikayas ) and the entire Vinaya Pitaka were composed between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE.
• The Sutta Nipata also belongs to this period, while the Khuddaka Nikaya and the Abhidhamma Pitaka are later works.
• The geographical context of the canon's composition aligns with the middle Ganga valley (present-day Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh).
• Historians often use the Jatakas, a collection of stories in the Khuddaka Nikaya, as sources for the 6th century BCE and later periods.
• However, these stories, in their current form, were compiled between the 3rd century BCE and 2nd century CE and should not be used for earlier periods.
• In this chapter, Jatakas are cited sparingly to fill narrative gaps, confirm contemporary points, or provide long-term perspectives on specific issues.

The 16 Great States

 Ancient texts, including Later Vedic literature, epics like the Mahabharata, and the Puranas, mention various kings and dynasties from ancient India. However, these texts pose challenges when used as sources for political history, especially for the period before the 6th century BCE.

• The earlier parts of the genealogies in these texts are clearly mythical, while the later ones have some historical basis. The historicity of the genealogies in between is uncertain. For example, figures like Parikshit, Janamejaya, and Janaka may have been real historical figures who lived and ruled between the 9th and 7th centuries BCE. 
• Emergence of State Polities Around the 6th or 5th century BCE, state polities and societies began to emerge in a wide belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in eastern India, including the Malwa region. The inclusion of Assaka (Ashmaka) in the upper Godavari valley in lists of great states suggests that similar developments were occurring in parts of trans-Vindhyan India as well. In South India, cities and states became visible a few centuries later. 
• Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) is characterized by its glossy surface, achieved through various methods. Some theories suggest the application of ferruginous compounds before firing, while others propose the use of materials like oil or plant juice after firing. The pottery is usually unpainted, but decorative designs in yellow and light vermillion can be found in some instances.
• During the 19th century, pottery resembling Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) was discovered at various sites, with notable findings at Taxila in 1913. This type of pottery was later identified at numerous locations across the Ganga valley and beyond. NBPW pottery has been found at nearly 1,500 sites, ranging from Taxila and Charsada in the northwest to Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh, and from Prabhas Patan in Gujarat to Tamluk in Bengal. There is a significant concentration of sites in regions such as Punjab, Haryana, north Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar, and West Bengal.

Some of the main excavated sites include:

• Rupar in Punjab
• Raja Karna ka Qila and Daulatpur in Haryana
• Bairat, Noh, and Jodhpura in Rajasthan
• Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Kaushambi, and Shravasti in UP
• Vaishali, Patna, and Sonepur in Bihar

At sites in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and western UP, the NBPW phase follows the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) phase, with an overlap between the two. In eastern UP and Bihar, the NBPW phase is preceded by the Black and Red Ware (BRW) phase.

Northern Black Polished Ware from Various Sites

The texts of Buddhism and Jainism mention 16 strong states (solasa-mahajanapada) that thrived in the early 6th century BCE. Janapada referred to a region made up of urban and rural settlements along with its people. Besides these major states, there were likely smaller states, chiefdoms, and tribal areas. 

• The Anguttara Nikaya lists the mahajanapadas as follows: Kasi (Kashi), Kosala (Koshala), Anga, Magadha, Vajji (Vrijji), Malla, Chetiya (Chedi), Vamsa (Vatsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machchha (Matsya), Shurasena, Assaka (Ashmaka), Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja. The Mahavastu has a similar list but replaces Shibi and Dasharna with Gandhara and Kamboja. The Bhagavati Sutra offers a different list, which includes names like Banga (Vanga), Malaya, Malava, and Bajji (Vajji). While there are common names, the Bhagavati Sutra list appears later and less reliable.
• The mahajanapadas include monarchies and non-monarchical states called ganas or sanghas, which are used interchangeably in this chapter. These were oligarchies where power rested with a group of people, not republics. The most powerful states in the 6th century BCE were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti. 
• Relations among states varied over time, involving warfare, truce, and military alliances. Marriage alliances were also significant but sometimes took a backseat to political ambitions. Political history outlines can be pieced together using literary sources from this and later periods.
• The kingdom of Kashi was located between the Varuna and Asi rivers, which bordered it to the north and south. The capital city, Varanasi (now Benaras), situated on the banks of the Ganga, got its name from these rivers. The Jatakas, a collection of stories, suggest that several kings of Kashi aimed for political supremacy and often competed with Kosala. Kashi also had conflicts with Anga and Magadha. At one point, Kashi was a powerful state in northern India but was eventually absorbed into Kosala.

Silver Punch-Marked Coins of Kashi, Kosala, and Magadha

Kosala was a powerful kingdom located between the Sadanira (Gandak) River to the east, the Gomati River to the west, the Sarpika or Syandika (Sai) River to the south, and the Nepal hills to the north. The kingdom was divided by the Sarayu River into northern and southern parts. Shravasti (modern Saheth-Maheth) was the capital of north Kosala, while Kushavati was the capital of south Kosala. 

• Other important towns included Saketa, Ayodhya, and lesser towns like Setavya, Ukkattha, and Kitagiri. Kosala expanded its territory by conquering Kashi and exerting influence over the Sakyas of Kapilavastu and possibly the Kalamas of Kesaputta. King Pasenadi (Prasenajit) of Kosala, a contemporary of the Buddha, is frequently mentioned in Pali texts. Initially, Kosala and Magadha were connected through marital alliances, but they later became rivals after the death of King Bimbisara of Magadha.
• Anga roughly corresponds to modern-day Bhagalpur and Monghyr districts in Bihar. It was bordered by the Ganga River to the north, the Champa River (possibly the Chandan River) to the south, and Magadha to the west. The capital, Champa (formerly Malini ), was a major city in the 6th century BCE, located at the confluence of the Ganga and Champa rivers, likely identified with modern Champanagara or Champapura village near Bhagalpur. Champa was a significant commercial hub and a departure point for merchants sailing to Suvarnabhumi (possibly in Southeast Asia).
• The kingdom of Magadha covered areas of modern Patna and Gaya districts in Bihar. It was bounded by the Ganga, Son, and Champa rivers and the Vindhyan spurs. The capital was initially Girivraja or Rajagriha, near modern Rajgir. Historical accounts from the Puranas list the early kings of Magadha, starting with Brihadratha, whose dynasty ended in the 6th century BCE, paving the way for the Haryanka dynasty. The detailed history of Magadha will be explored later in this chapter.
• The Vajji principality was located in eastern India, north of the Ganga River and extending up to the Nepal hills. Most historians view the Vajji as a confederation of eight or nine clans, based on references in Buddhist texts. The confederacy included the Vajjis, Lichchhavis, Videhas, and Nayas/Jnatrikas. The capital of the Lichchhavis and the Vajji confederacy was Vaishali, identified with modern Basarh in north Bihar. 
• The Lichchhavis, frequently mentioned in Buddhist texts, had good relations with Kosala and the Mallas but were in conflict with Magadha. The Videhas had their capital at Mithila, modern Janakpur in Nepal. The Jnatrikas were based in Kundapura (or Kundagrama) and Kollaga, suburbs of Vaishali, with Mahavira, the Jain leader, belonging to this clan. The Vajji confederacy was led by Chetaka, who was related to Mahavira's family.

The 16 Mahajanapadas

Malla

• Located west of the Vajjis, the Malla principality was a confederation of nine clans.
• The political centres were Kusinara and Pava.
• Kusinara is identified with Kasia on the smaller Gandak River, while Pava is linked to Padaraona village.
• Initially a monarchy, the Mallas were allies of the Vajjis, though there were instances of conflict.

Chedi

• Located in eastern Bundelkhand, central India, with its capital at Sotthivatinagara, possibly the same as Shuktimati or Shuktisahvaya from the Mahabharata.

Vatsa

• Known for fine cotton textiles, with its capital at Kaushambi.
• The kingdom was famous for the rivalry between kings Udayana of Vatsa and Pradyota of Avanti.
• Udayana’s romantic exploits, including his marriage to Vasavadatta, Pradyota’s daughter, became the subject of later Sanskrit dramas.

Kuru

• Ruled by the Yuddhitthila family, allegedly descendants of Yudhishthira, from their capital at Indapatta (modern Indraprastha).
• In the Buddha’s time, Kuru was a minor state under a chieftain named Koravya.
• Later, Kuru kings established matrimonial ties with the Yadavas, Bhojas, and Panchalas, and the governance shifted from monarchy to a sangha.

Panchala

• Covered parts of the Rohilkhand area and central Doab, divided by the Ganga River.
• Ahichchhatra was the capital of Uttara Panchala, and Kampilya was the capital of Dakshina Panchala.
• The kingdom was known for the city of Kanyakubja (Kanauj) and a king named Chulani Brahmadatta.
• Over time, Panchala transitioned to an oligarchic form of government.

Matsya

• Located in the Jaipur area of Rajasthan, extending into Alwar and Bharatpur.
• Capital was Viratanagara (modern Bairat), named after the kingdom's founder, Virata.
• Associated with the Shurasenas in Buddhist texts.
• Shurasenas had their capital at Mathura on the Yamuna River.
• Avantiputra, king of the Shurasenas and a disciple of the Buddha, suggests a possible alliance between Shurasena and Avanti.
• Rulers of the Mathura region referred to as Yadu or Yadavas, including the Vrishnis.

Assaka (Ashmaka/Ashvaka)

• Located in the northwest, firmly on the Godavari River.
• Capital was Potana/Podana or Potali, identified with modern Bodhan.
• Godavari River separated Assaka from Mulaka or Alaka, with its capital at Pratishthana (modern Paithan).
• Jataka stories suggest Assaka may have been under Kashi's influence and achieved a military victory over Kalinga.

Avanti

• Divided into northern and southern parts by the Vindhyas.
• Important towns included Mahishmati (modern Maheshwar) and Ujjayini (near modern Ujjain), both mentioned as capitals.
• Key trade route connections with north India, the Deccan, and western coast ports.
• Famous king Pradyota involved in conflicts with Vatsa, Magadha, and Kosala.

Gandhara

• Comprised modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts of Pakistan and the Kashmir valley.
• Capital Takshashila (Taxila) was a major trade and learning centre.
• King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin ruled in the mid-6th century BCE, fostering relations with Magadha and waging war against Avanti.
• Behistun inscription indicates Persian conquest of Gandhara in the late 6th century BCE.

Kamboja

• Usually associated with Gandhara.
• Included area around Rajaori, Hazara district of North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, possibly extending to Kafiristan.

Kambojaswere a monarchy in the 6th century BCE, but the Arthashastrarefers to them as a sangha.

Alexander Cunningham (1814–93)

In the 19th century, many major cities mentioned in ancient Indian texts were identified, and one significant contributor to this field was Alexander Cunningham. He was an archaeologist who later became the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1871. Cunningham played a crucial role in identifying ancient Indian cities by piecing together clues from classical Graeco-Roman accounts and the travelogues of Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Faxian. 

• Unlike others, Cunningham confirmed his identifications through field surveys. Some of his major achievements include the identifications of Aornos, Taxila, Sangala, Srughna, Ahichchhatra, Bairat, Sankisa, Shravasti, Kaushambi, Padmavati, Vaishali, and Nalanda.
• Cunningham initially identified the site of ancient Taxila (Takshashila) with Manikyala. However, his explorations at Shah-dheri in 1863–64 led him to the correct identification of Taxila at this site. In the provided extract, Cunningham explains how he reached this conclusion:
• He discusses the confusion regarding the location of Taxila due to erroneous distance records by Pliny and the lack of information about the ruins near Shah-dheri.
• Pliny's accounts suggested Taxila was closer to the Haro river, while Chinese pilgrims placed it farther east, near Kala-ka-sarai.
• Cunningham argues that the distance recorded by Pliny should be revised to reconcile the discrepancies, proposing that Pliny's 60 miles should be read as 80 miles.
• His field surveys in the Shah-dheri area, where he found extensive ruins, stupas, monasteries, and temples, supported his identification of Taxila at this site.

Taxila in History

• Taxila, an ancient city, is discussed in terms of its history and the various mounds found at the site, including Bhir, Hathial, Sirkap, Kacha-kot, Babar Khana, and Sirsukh.

Identification of Taxila:

• The ruins near Shah-dheri are identified as the famous Taxila mentioned by the Greeks.
• This identification is supported by the bearings and distances of the next two places visited by Hwen Thsang, which are now known as Hasan Abdal and Baoti Pind.
• These places are considered the western group of the outlying remains of Taxila, the ancient capital of the Panjab.

The Ganas or Sanghas

• Ancient Indian texts distinguish between the political structures of rajyas and ganas or sanghas.
• The Vajji and Malla mahajanapadas were examples of sanghas.
• Other ganas mentioned in Buddhist texts include the Sakyas, Koliyas, Bulis, Kalamas, Moriyas, and Bhaggas.
• Most politically significant ganas were located in or near the Himalayan foothills, while major kingdoms occupied the fertile alluvial tracts of the Ganga valley.

Political Structure of Ganas

• Ganas retained more tribal organization than monarchies and may have evolved from older tribal formations or through the subversion of monarchical rule.
• For example, the Videhas transitioned from a monarchy to a gana, while the Kurus underwent a similar transformation later.

Types of Ganas

• Ganas could be composed of a single clan, like the Sakyas and Koliyas, or a confederation of several clans, such as the Vajjis and Yadavas.
• These confederacies indicate a shared political identity among the ganas.

The Sakyas

• The Sakyas claimed descent from the Ikshvaku family and the solar dynasty, with their territory bordered by the Rohini river, Rapti river, and the Himalayas.
• There is ongoing debate about the location of their capital, Kapilavastu, with some scholars suggesting Tilaurakot and others favoring Piprahwa-Ganwaria.
• The Sakyas are mentioned in detail in Buddhist texts because the Buddha belonged to this clan, and they were connected by marriage to the royal house of Kosala.
• The Sakya assembly was known for gathering regularly, with the first recorded meeting shortly after the Buddha's death.
• The Koliyas of Ramagrama, a principality, were situated to the east of the Sakyas, with the Rohini river separating the two. Some texts indicate that the Koliyas and Sakyas might have been related. 
• The Bhaggas, located in the Vindhyan region between the Yamuna and Son rivers, were apparently subordinate to the Vatsas. Not much is known about the other ganas.

Early Studies on Ganas

• Early Nationalist historians, like Jayaswal in 1943, glorified the ganas by exaggerating their democratic features.
• They compared the ganas to the republics of Greece and Rome, as well as modern political institutions, to counter Western claims that Indians only knew despotic rule.

Later Writings

• Later writings, such as J. P. Sharma in 1968, took a more objective approach to studying the ganas.

Corporate Element in Governance

• Governance in the ganas had a corporate element, as noted in the Arthashastra, a later text.
• The Arthashastra outlines special strategies for conquering the ganas, focusing on creating dissension among their ranks, as they were different from monarchies.

Conflict between Sakyas and Kosalans

• Prasenajit’s Proposal: Prasenajit, the king of Kosala and an admirer of the Buddha, sought to marry into the Sakya clan by requesting one of their princesses.
• Sakya Trickery: Unable to refuse Prasenajit’s proposal but unwilling to give up a true Sakya princess, the Sakyas deceived him by offering a slave girl, Vasabhakkhattiya, whose lowly parentage was concealed.
• Revealing the Truth: Vidudabha, the son of Vasabhakkhattiya and a Sakya chief, eventually learned of his mother’s background, and this information reached Prasenajit.
• Prasenajit’s Anger: Upon discovering the deception, Prasenajit disowned his wife and son. The Buddha intervened, explaining that social status was determined by the father’s lineage, not the mother’s.
• Restoration and Revenge: Following the Buddha’s intercession, Vidudabha and his mother were restored to favour. Vidudabha later succeeded his father as king and exacted revenge on the Sakyas for their trickery.

Kosalan Massacre and Ancient Indian Ganas

• The story of the Kosalan massacre of the Sakyas, while uncertain in its historical accuracy, became a notable episode in later Buddhist tradition. This event is vividly depicted in relief sculptures found at various stupa sites.
• Ancient Indian ganas, often compared to democracies, were actually governed by an aristocracy consisting of the heads of prominent Kshatriya families. There was no single hereditary king; instead, a chief (known by different titles such as ganapati, ganajyestha, ganaraja, or sanghamukhya) led an aristocratic council that convened in a hall called the santhagara.
• The political system of the ganas appeared to be a blend of assembly governance and oligarchy, with effective executive power likely concentrated in a smaller group. This is similar to the Athenian democracy, where power was also held by a few.
• Later texts provide detailed accounts of the Lichchhavis, a prominent gana. For instance, the Ekapanna Jataka mentions 7,707 rajas (kings) governing the Lichchhavi capital of Vaishali, along with a similar number of uparajas (subordinate kings), senapatis (military commanders), and bhandagarikas (treasurers). The Chullakalinga Jataka refers to 7,707 ruling families known for their argumentative nature, while the Mahavastu suggests there were 168,000 rajas in Vaishali.
• Although these figures should not be taken literally, they imply the existence of a large assembly of Kshatriya family heads in Vaishali, who referred to themselves as ‘raja.’ This assembly met annually during the spring festival to conduct important public business and elect their leader for a fixed term. The uparajas were likely the eldest sons of the rajas.
• Important events, such as honouring the courtesan Ambapali and the ceremonial bathing of rajas in the sacred pokkharani (tank) mentioned in the Bhaddasala Jataka, occurred during these annual meetings. The Lichchhavi assembly held sovereign power, capable of imposing severe punishments like death or exile. Day-to-day administrative tasks were managed by a smaller council of nine, which acted on behalf of the larger assembly. Notably, the assembly did not include women.

Governance in Early Ganas

Similarities with Buddhist Monastic Order:

• The procedures of the Buddhist monastic order (sangha) were likely inspired by the governance of ganas, particularly the Lichchhavis.
• While the functioning of the two institutions was not identical, there were notable similarities in their operations.

Gana Meetings:

• Meetings at the santhagara (meeting place) of the ganas were probably announced by the beating of a drum.
• There might have been a regulator of seats to organize the gathering.
• Voting was conducted using pieces of wood called salakas, and the collector of votes, known as the salaka-gahapaka, was chosen for his honesty and impartiality.
• The gana-puraka was responsible for ensuring a quorum for major deliberations.

Textual Differences:

• Buddhist and Jaina texts provide more details about the ganas compared to Brahmanical texts.
• This is because Brahmanical ideology focused on kingship, viewing kinglessness as anarchy.
• Monarchies and oligarchies had different internal power dynamics, with Brahmanas and purohitas possibly having less prestige in the ganas compared to rajyas.

Social Structure:

• The ganas were closely linked with the Kshatriyas and named after the ruling Kshatriya clan.
• Members of the gana were connected through real or claimed kinship ties.
• Various other groups, such as Brahmanas, farmers, artisans, wage labourers, and slaves, lived in these principalities but held a subordinate status politically, economically, and socially.
• These subordinate groups did not have rights of political participation or the ability to use the clan name.
• For example, individuals like Upali, the barber in Sakya territory, and Chunda, the metal smith in Malla territory, were not part of the ruling elite and did not attend the assembly.

Military Organization:

• Powerful monarchies of the time had a standing army, a permanent corps of troops recruited and maintained by the state.
• Such an organization may not have existed in the ganas.
• The Lichchhavis had a strong army, but soldiers likely returned to their lands when not engaged in combat.

Vulnerabilities of the Vajjis:

• The Mahaparinibbana Sutta reflects the vulnerabilities of the Vajjis, highlighting their points of weakness.
• Vassakara, a figure seeking the Buddha’s advice, represents the strategic considerations regarding the Vajjis.

The Buddha’s Prediction about the Vajjians

While the Buddha was staying on Vulture’s Peak near Rajagaha, King Ajatasattu of Magadha planned to attack the powerful Vajjians. To seek guidance, he sent his minister, Vassakara, to the Buddha. Vassakara approached the Buddha with respect and relayed the king’s message.

• The Buddha, with Ananda fanning him, spoke about the Vajjians’ strength. He explained that as long as the Vajjians continued to hold their meetings in harmony and followed their ancient traditions, they would prosper. He listed several conditions that ensured their welfare, such as respecting their elders, protecting their women, and maintaining their shrines.
• The Buddha then recounted how he had previously taught the Vajjians these principles of well-being when he was in Vesali at the Sarandada shrine.

Vassakara's Insight  

• Vassakara had grasped a crucial hint and was eager to start devising a strategy to overpower the Vajjis.  

Differences in Land Ownership Patterns  

• There might have been variations in land ownership patterns among the Kshatriya political elite and the ganas. Walter Ruben suggests that the clan exercised rights over land, and private property may have been absent.  

Governance through Discussion: Strength and Weakness  

• The greatest asset of the ganas was their governance through discussion, but this was also their vulnerability. They were prone to internal dissension, especially when confronted by aggressive monarchies.  

Lichchhavi Custom and Clan Rights  

• The custom practiced by the Lichchhavis, where an exceptionally beautiful woman was to belong to all Lichchhavi men, suggests clan rights over resources such as land. This custom may reflect the absence of private property and the exercise of clan rights.  

Critique of the Lichchhavis

• In the Lalitavistara, the Lichchhavis of Vaishali are criticized for their lack of proper communication, adherence to dharma, and respect for social status and age. This internal discord made them unsuitable for the future Buddha's birth.  

Arthashastra's View on Sanghas  

• The Arthashastra views sanghas as unassailable and advises kings to win over friendly ones. It emphasizes the importance of self-control and just treatment by the head of a sangha towards its members, ensuring actions are beneficial and agreeable to all.  

Ganas and Mahajanapadas

• The Ashtadhyayi lists various ganas (tribal or clan-based groups), including the Kshudrakas, Malavas, Ambashthas, Hastinayanas, Prakanvas, Madras, Madhumantas, Apritas, Vasatis, Bhaggas, Shibis, Ashvayanas, and Ashvakayanas. Later references indicate that the Vrishnis, Andhakas, and other allied tribes in the Mathura region were part of a sangha (a collective or association). Vasudeva Krishna of the Vrishni clan is depicted as a sangha-mukhya, or the head of a sangha. Non-monarchical states are also mentioned in ancient texts like the Mahabharata, Megathenes’ Indica, and Greek accounts of Alexander’s invasion.
• The names of various ganas, such as the Yaudheyas, Malavas, Uddehikas, and Arjunayanas, appear on coins from the early centuries CE and are also found in inscriptions. In the 4th century CE, Chandragupta I is recorded to have married a Lichchhavi princess, Kumaradevi, and this alliance was celebrated on gold coins. His successor, Samudragupta, is referred to as Lichchhavi-dauhitra (grandson of the Lichchhavis) in inscriptions, indicating the Lichchhavis’ continued political significance. However, it is likely that Samudragupta’s military campaigns diminished the power of the ganas, reducing them to a position of political insignificance.
• The history of the ganas in ancient India spans over a thousand years. Their military defeats by monarchical states reflect their governance and military organization challenges in the face of empire-building efforts. The political aspirations of monarchical states were embodied in terms like chakravartin, samrat, and sarvabhauma, signifying a ‘universal ruler’ aiming to establish dominion over the entire subcontinent, known as Jambudvipa. Eventually, the rulers of Magadha succeeded in realizing this ambition.

Political Conflicts and the Growth of the Magadhan Empire

The rise of Magadha to political dominance can be pieced together from Puranic, Buddhist, and Jaina texts, though these sources present differing dynastic sequences. Buddhist and Jaina traditions vie to assert their claims to the great kings of the era, while the Puranas criticize those who favor these traditions. The political narrative of the time is marked by intense rivalries, succession struggles, plots, and violence, all underlying the contest for control over people, land, and resources. The successful states were those with larger and more capable armies, achieved through effective political strategies of administration and control.

Rise of Magadha

Bimbisara's Role : Bimbisara was crucial in Magadha's rise to power. The  Mahavamsa  mentions he was made king at 15, indicating he wasn't the dynasty's founder. Some believe the title Seniya or Shrenika suggests he was once a commander, possibly for the Vajjis, but this isn't supported by the  Mahavamsa  . Buddhist texts say he belonged to the Haryanka family.

Marital Alliances : Bimbisara reportedly had 500 wives, as per the  Mahavagga  . His marriages strengthened Magadha's position, including his union with Mahakosala, sister of king Prasenajit of Kosala, which brought a village in Kashi as dowry. He also married a Videhan princess and Khema, daughter of the Madra ruler in central Punjab.

Capital and Military Campaigns : Bimbisara's first capital was at Girivraja, identified with Rajagriha. He successfully campaigned against Anga, possibly to avenge his father's defeat by king Brahmadatta. Following this, prince Kunika, later known as Ajatashatru, was appointed governor of Champa.

Relations with Avanti : A story about Bimbisara sending his physician Jivaka to care for the ill Pradyota, king of Avanti, indicates friendly relations between the two leaders.

Chronology of Early Dynasties

• Bimbisara: 545–493 BCE
• Ajatashatru: 493–462 BCE
• Next Four Haryanka Kings: 462–430/413 BCE
• Shishunaga and Successors: 430/413–364 BCE
• Nanda Dynasty: 364/345–324 BCE

Dating Methodology : The dates are estimated by determining the number of years different kings ruled and relating this to the Buddha's death. Buddhist tradition claims the Buddha died in the 8th year of Ajatashatru's reign. Scholars disagree on the exact date of the Buddha's death, but this chronology assumes he died around 486 BCE.

Potential Date Adjustments : If the Buddha's death is revised to between 378 BCE and 348 BCE, all the dates would need to be adjusted accordingly. However, there is currently no reason to change the established dates.

Bimbisara's Kingdom and Administration

• Kingdom Size: The Mahavagga indicates that Bimbisara ruled over a vast kingdom with thousands of thriving villages.
• Village Governance: Villages were managed by assemblies led by village headmen known as gramakas.
• Officials: High-ranking officials called mahamatras likely had executive, judicial, and military roles.
• Royal Retinue:Bimbisara’s retinue included various individuals:
  • Sona Kolivisa: A member of the retinue.
  • Sumana: A flower gatherer who provided the king with jasmine daily.
  • Koliya: A minister.
  • Kumbhaghosaka: The treasurer.
  • Jivaka: The physician.
• Army: The king’s title ‘Seniya’ suggests he maintained a regular standing army financed by state revenues.

Religious Affiliation

• Jaina Texts: These texts portray Bimbisara as a follower of Mahavira, the Jaina sage.
• Buddhist Texts: They depict him as a follower of the Buddha, with accounts of his meetings with Gautama Buddha.

Meetings with the Buddha

• First Meeting: Bimbisara is said to have met Gautama Buddha about seven years before the latter’s enlightenment.
• Second Meeting: The second meeting occurred in Rajagriha when the Buddha visited Magadha with his disciples.

Acts of Patronage

• Hosting Monks: Bimbisara hosted meals for the Buddha and his monks at the palace.
• Gift to the Sangha: He gifted a park called Veluvana to the monastic community (sangha).
• Care for Monks: Bimbisara delegated Jivaka to attend to the Buddha and other monks.
• Queen Khema: Bimbisara’s wife, Khema, was knowledgeable about the Buddha’s teachings.

Rules and Regulations

• Vinaya Pitaka: Several rules in this Buddhist scripture were reportedly established by the Buddha in response to issues raised by Bimbisara.
• Remission of Ferry Charges: Bimbisara is said to have announced a remission of ferry charges for all ascetics following an incident involving the Buddha.

Historical Significance

• Bimbisara is regarded as an important figure in early Buddhist tradition, although the historical accuracy of some stories is uncertain.

Bimbisara's Death: Buddhist vs. Jaina Accounts

• Buddhist Tradition: Bimbisara was allegedly killed by his son Kunika (Ajatashatru) at the instigation of Devadatta, the Buddha’s cousin. Ajatashatru later confessed his crime to the Buddha.
• Jaina Tradition: Bimbisara was imprisoned by Ajatashatru, who sought to become king. Queen Chellana’s devotion to her husband in prison led Ajatashatru to regret his actions. In a twist of events, Bimbisara, mistaking his son’s intentions, consumed poison and ended his life.

Ajatashatru and his Conflicts

Ajatashatru, the ruler of Magadha, faced significant challenges during his reign, particularly from Kosala and the Lichchhavis.

Conflict with Kosala

Ajatashatru's expansion of Magadha brought him into conflict with Prasenajit, the king of Kosala. Prasenajit was outraged by Ajatashatru's murder of his father, Bimbisara, and even more so by the death of his sister, Mahakoshala, who was Bimbisara's wife and died of grief shortly after. In response to this, Prasenajit revoked the gift of Kashi village that had been part of his sister's dowry and declared war on Magadha.

The war saw both sides experiencing victories and defeats. At one point, Prasenajit was forced to retreat to his capital, while at another, Ajatashatru was captured but spared. Eventually, a peace treaty was reached where Kashi was returned to Ajatashatru, and he married a Kosalan princess named Vajira. Shortly after this, Prasenajit was overthrown in a palace coup and sought Ajatashatru's help, but he died before reaching the city.

Conflict with the Lichchhavis

Ajatashatru also faced a challenge from the Lichchhavis, who were at the height of their power. The conflict with them was rooted in different accounts:

• Buddhist tradition states that the Lichchhavis broke a promise to share the contents of a jewel mine with Ajatashatru.

• Jaina tradition claims that the conflict began when princes Halla and Vehalla refused to give their stepbrother, Ajatashatru, a special elephant and a valuable necklace, leading them to flee to their grandfather in Vaishali.

The Lichchhavis, supported by various ganas and Kosala, were strong opponents. Realizing he could not defeat them in direct battle, Ajatashatru sent his minister Vassakara to create discord within the Lichchhavi ranks. This strategy proved effective, and when Ajatashatru finally attacked, the Lichchhavis were too busy infighting to mount a proper defense.

The Jaina texts describe Ajatashatru using innovative weapons like a stone-hurling catapult and a chariot with an attached mace during the war. To enhance his operations against the Lichchhavis, Ajatashatru ordered the construction of fortifications at Pataligrama on the Ganga, which later became the renowned city of Pataliputra. The conflict with the Lichchhavis was long-lasting, possibly from 484 to 468 BCE, but ultimately, Magadha emerged victorious. Ajatashatru also achieved victory against Chanda Pradyota of Avanti during his reign.

Ajatashatru and the Buddha

Ajatashatru’s Visit to the Buddha

• Ajatashatru’s visit to the Buddha is an important event in the Buddhist tradition, highlighting the royal patronage that brought prestige to ancient religious sects.
• This event is depicted in a 2nd century BCE relief panel from the Bharhut site, showing Ajatashatru’s reverence for the Buddha.

Relief Panel Description

• The relief panel illustrates Ajatashatru’s visit in four scenes:
• First Scene: A royal procession with the king riding an elephant, followed by his queens on elephants.
• Second Scene: The king dismounts and stands before two mango trees, raising his hand as if to speak.
• Third Scene: The king and queens stand with hands folded in reverence.
• Fourth Scene: The king pays respects before a throne symbolizing the Buddha.

Inscription and Identification

• A Prakrit inscription on the panel identifies the scene as Ajatashatru worshipping the Buddha (Ajatasatu Bhagavato vandate).
• This inscription confirms the historical significance of Ajatashatru’s visit to the Buddha.

Ajatashatru in Jaina and Buddhist Traditions

• In Jaina tradition, Ajatashatru is depicted as a follower of Mahavira, known for his frequent visits and conversations with the Jaina sage.
• Jaina texts emphasize Ajatashatru’s strong adherence to Mahavira’s teachings and his remorse for his patricide.
• In Buddhist tradition, Ajatashatru is portrayed as a remorseful figure who approached the Buddha to express his regret for killing his father.
• Both traditions present Ajatashatru as a significant figure in the early Buddhist and Jaina communities.

Ajatashatru’s Role After the Buddha’s Death

• After the Buddha’s death, Ajatashatru is said to have claimed a portion of the Buddha’s relics, asserting his Kshatriya status.
• He is credited with building and repairing many relic stupas and monasteries around Rajagriha, contributing to the spread of Buddhism.
• Ajatashatru is also recognized for hosting the first Buddhist council at Rajagriha, an important event following the Buddha’s death.
• This council gathered eminent monks to discuss and preserve the Buddha’s teachings.

Successors and Historical Interpretations

• Buddhist tradition describes Ajatashatru’s successors as patricides who ruled for 56 years.
• Udayibhadda: His immediate successor, known as Udayibhadda in Buddhist texts and Udayabhadra or Udayin in Jaina texts.
• Jaina tradition portrays Udayin as a devoted son and a pious Jaina, who was assassinated while listening to a religious discourse.
• Udayin’s Successors: The Puranas list Nandivardhana and Mahanandin as Udayin’s successors, while Buddhist tradition names Anuruddha, Munda, and Nagadarshaka.
• According to historical accounts, the people of Magadha overthrew the ruling family and chose an amatya named Shishunaga as their king. Shishunaga, believed to have been the son of a Lichchhavi king from Vaishali, established a second capital in Vaishali and successfully defeated the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti. He may have also annexed the kingdoms of Vatsa and Kosala. Shishunaga’s son and successor, Kalashoka, moved the capital to Pataliputra and organized the second Buddhist council in Vaishali. However, the Shaishunaga dynasty ended violently, with the king and his sons being killed, paving the way for the Nanda dynasty.
• The Nanda dynasty’s founder is called Mahapadma in the Puranas and Ugrasena in Buddhist tradition. The Jaina Parishishtaparvan suggests he was the son of a barber and a courtesan. Greek writer Curtius claims he was a barber who became a queen’s lover and murdered the king. The Puranas describe him as a king’s son by a Shudra woman, while Buddhist texts say he was of unknown lineage. According to the Mahavamsatika, he was a frontier man who became a robber leader and achieved military success.
• There were nine Nanda kings according to Puranic, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions. The Puranas view the first king as the father and the others as his sons, while Buddhist texts see them as brothers. The Mahabodhivamsa lists the kings as Ugrasena, Panduka, Pandugati, Bhutapala, Rashtrapala, Govishanaka, Dashasiddhaka, Kaivarta, and Dhana. The Puranas call Mahapadma an uprooter of Kshatriyas and suggest Nanda military victories in Kalinga. Some scholars believe Nanda ruled over the Deccan, indicated by the place name Nau Nand Dehra (Nanded) on the Godavari, although evidence for their rule in trans-Vindhyan India is weak.

Dhana Nanda and Alexander's Invasion

• Dhana Nanda was the ruler of Magadha during Alexander the Great's invasion. Greek historians referred to him as Agrammes or Xandrames, likely a distorted version of his name.
• He is portrayed as a strong king governing the Prasii (eastern people) and the Gangaridae (inhabitants of the lower Ganga valley).
• Greek historian Curtius estimated Dhana Nanda's army to be composed of 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots, and 3,000 elephants, though other accounts suggested even higher numbers of elephants.
• While these figures may not be exact, they indicate the Greeks' awareness of the Nandas' large and powerful army.
• Later Indian sources depicted Dhana Nanda as extremely wealthy but greedy, exploiting his subjects, and becoming unpopular as a result.

Nanda Ministers and Jaina Tradition

• Jaina tradition holds that the Nanda kings had several ministers with Jaina inclinations.
• Kalpaka, a minister under the first Nanda king, was initially hesitant to take office but, once in position, encouraged an aggressive expansionist policy.
• Jaina texts suggest that ministerial positions were hereditary, as seen in the case of Shakatala's son, Sthulabhadra, who declined the post in favor of becoming a Jaina monk.
• Sthulabhadra's brother, Shriyaka, eventually accepted the position.

Foundation of the Nanda Empire

• The Nanda kings expanded upon the work of their Haryanka and Shaishunaga predecessors to establish the first great empire in north India.
• Various factors contributed to Magadha's political success, including its advantageous geographical position.
• Rajagriha, the old capital, was well-defended by five hills, while the new capital, Pataliputra, benefited from its location at the confluence of the Ganga and Son rivers.
• The Ganga and its tributaries connected Magadha to important trade routes, facilitating economic growth.

Resources and Military Strength

• While some historians argued that a monopoly over iron ore mines fueled Magadha's expansion, this was not the case, as the exploitation of iron ores in south Bihar occurred later.
• However, Magadha did possess fertile soil, timber, and elephants from adjacent forests, and the Chotanagpur plateau nearby was rich in minerals and raw materials, providing valuable resources.
• Resourceful rulers who led successful military campaigns and formed strategic marital alliances were instrumental in building the empire.
• Ultimately, Magadha's military success stemmed from effective resource extraction and deployment, along with the establishment of a strong military force.