Colonial policies and tribes | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The history of colonialism in India is a complex narrative marked by significant changes in the lives of its indigenous tribal communities. Although early anthropological studies portrayed tribes as isolated, cohesive communities, the arrival of colonial powers brought profound and irreversible transformations to their world. This article delves into the multifaceted effects of colonial policies on Indian tribes, examining how they were integrated into the British and princely administrations, the disruption of their traditional way of life, changes in their relationship with forests, and the lasting repercussions of these policies.

Integration and Transformation

• Colonialism disrupted the relative isolation of tribal communities as market forces penetrated their territories. The arrival of moneylenders, traders, revenue farmers, and other middlemen, along with petty officials, had a profound impact. These outsiders, driven by economic motives, disrupted the tribes' traditional way of life. Many tribespeople were ensnared in debt, lost their lands to outsiders, and were reduced to the status of agricultural laborers, sharecroppers, or rack-rented tenants. Some were compelled to retreat further into the hills.
• Efforts to prevent the alienation of tribal lands through belated legislation largely failed to halt this process. Verrier Elwin, a prominent figure in the development of government policies towards tribes, described the fate of tribal people under British rule as one marked by oppression and exploitation. Merchants and liquor vendors took advantage of their ignorance and simplicity, gradually diminishing their land holdings. Simultaneously, missionaries eroded their traditional culture, including art, dances, weaving, and other aspects of their heritage.

Impact on Tribal Relationship with Forests

• Tribal communities heavily depended on forests for food, fuel, cattle feed, and raw materials for handicrafts. However, the colonization of India, accompanied by the influx of immigrants from the plains hungry for land, led to the destruction of forests. This disrupted the tribals' traditional means of livelihood, depriving them of essential resources.
• To conserve forests and facilitate their commercial exploitation, colonial authorities enacted forest laws that imposed strict restrictions on tribal forest use and access to forest products. Additionally, the expansion of railways and roadways into tribal areas was driven by the exploitation of their rich natural resources, further breaking their isolation.

Uprisings and Exclusion

• The loss of land, indebtedness, exploitation by middlemen, and oppression by government officials contributed to a series of tribal uprisings in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Examples include the Santhal uprising and the Munda rebellion led by Birsa Munda. Tribal communities also actively participated in national and peasant movements across several regions.
• In response to these uprisings, the colonial government established "excluded" and "partially excluded" areas, where the entry of non-tribals was prohibited or regulated. In these areas, the British preferred indirect rule through local kings or headmen.

Debate on Integration vs. Isolation

• The famous debate in the 1940s over tribal integration versus isolation was informed by this context. The isolationist perspective argued for the protection of tribes from external influences, such as traders, moneylenders, and missionaries, to prevent their detribalization. 
• Integrationists, on the other hand, considered tribes to be backward Hindus and advocated addressing their issues within the framework of other backward classes. The Constituent Assembly ultimately settled on a compromise that endorsed welfare schemes aimed at controlled integration.

Post-Independence Initiatives

• After gaining independence, India incorporated provisions in the Constitution to safeguard tribal interests and promote their development and welfare. Gandhi, Thakkar Bapa, and Nehru were instrumental in advocating for tribal transformation. The policy of Panchseel, based on five principles, was articulated by Nehru to guide tribal development.
• In 1960, the Scheduled Tribe Commission was established to advance tribal interests. Subsequently, the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) strategy was devised in 1980 to focus on socio-economic development and protection against exploitation. However, TSP results have not always met expectations, with an emphasis on infrastructural development in some states overshadowing the development of tribal communities.

Conclusion

The impact of colonial policies on Indian tribes was profound and enduring. It brought about integration, transformation, and significant disruptions to their traditional way of life. While post-independence initiatives aimed to rectify some of these injustices, challenges remain in ensuring the comprehensive development and well-being of tribal communities. The complex legacy of colonialism continues to shape the lives of India's indigenous tribes today.