Colonisation and Decolonisation of South-East Asia | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

South-East Asia: A Historical Overview

With the rejuvenated nationalist movements in wait, the Europeans returned to a very different Southeast Asia after World War II.

Indonesia

Beginning in the 16^thcentury, successive waves of Europeans—the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and British—sought to dominate the spice trade at its sources in India and the ‘Spice Islands’ (Maluku) of Indonesia. This meant finding a way to Asia to cut out Muslim merchants who, with their Venetian outlet in the Mediterranean, monopolised spice imports to Europe. Spices were highly coveted not only to preserve and make poorly preserved meat palatable, but also as medicines and magic potions. The arrival of Europeans in South East Asia is often regarded as the watershed moment in its history.

(a) The Portuguese:

• The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia’s Banda Islands. Once one of the world’s most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.
• New found Portuguese expertise in navigation, ship building and weaponry allowed them to make daring expeditions of exploration and expansion. Starting with the first exploratory expeditions sent from newly conquered Malacca in 1512, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Indonesia, and sought to dominate the sources of valuable spices and to extend the Catholic Church’s missionary efforts.
• The Portuguese turned east to Maluku and through both military conquest and alliance with local rulers, they established trading posts, forts, and missions. Ultimately, the Portuguese presence in Indonesia was reduced to Solor, Flores and Timor following defeat at the hands of indigenous Ternateans and the Dutch in Maluku, and a general failure to maintain control of trade in the region. In comparison with the original Portuguese ambition to dominate Asian trade, their influence on Indonesian culture was small.
• The most significant impacts of the Portuguese arrival were the disruption and disorganisation of the trade network mostly as a result of their conquest of Malacca, and the first significant plantings of Christianity in Indonesia.

(b) Dutch East-India Company:

• In 1602, the Dutch parliament awarded the VOC a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in the region at a time before the company controlled any territory in Java. In 1619, the VOC conquered the West Javan city of Jayakarta, where they founded the city of Batavia (present-day Jakarta).
• The Dutch followed the Portuguese aspirations, courage, brutality and strategies but brought better organization, weapons, ships, and superior financial backing. Although they failed to gain complete control of the Indonesian spice trade, they had much more success than the previous Portuguese efforts.
• They exploited the factionalisation of the small kingdoms in Java establishing a permanent foothold in Java, from which grew a land-based colonial empire which became one of the richest colonial possessions on earth.

(c) French and British interlude:

• After the fall of the Netherlands to the French Empire and the dissolution of the Dutch East India Company in 1800, there was some changes in the European colonial administration of the East Indies. The Company’s assets in East Indies were nationalized as the Dutch colony, the Dutch East Indies. Meanwhile Europe was devastated by the Napoleonic Wars.
• The Netherlands under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806, oversaw the Batavian Republic dissolved and replaced by the Kingdom of Holland, a French puppet kingdom ruled by Napoleon’s third brother Louis Bonaparte.
• Since 1875 the British has consolidated their rule in Bencoolen on western coast of Sumatra, and also has established their rule in Malaccan strait, the island of Singapore and Penang. As the British coveted the Dutch colonies in the region, the French-controlled East Indies was bracing for the incoming British invasion.
• In 1806, King of the Netherlands sent one of his general, Daendels, serving as governor-general of East Indies based in Java. Daendels was sent to strengthened Javanese defenses against predicted British invasion. Daendels was responsible for the construction of the Great Post Road across northern Java. The thousand-kilometre road was meant as to ease logistic across Java during which thousands of Javanese forced labourers died.
• In 1811, Java fell to a British East India Company force under Minto, the governor-general of India. Lord Minto appointed Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles as lieutenant governor of Java. Raffles carried further the administrative centralization previously initiated by Daendels. Raffles launched some military expeditions against local princes to subjugate them into British rule.
• During his administration, numbers of ancient monuments in Java were rediscovered, the most important one is the rediscovery of Borobudur Buddhist temple in Central Java. Raffles was the enthusiast of the island’s history, as he wrote the book History of Java.
• In 1815, the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the end of Napoleonic Wars, under the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814.

(d) Dutch State Rule: 

• After the VOC (Dutch East India Company) went bankrupt and was dissolved in 1800, the Dutch state took over its possessions in 1816 following a brief British rule under Thomas Stamford Raffles. The Dutch state faced challenges in consolidating its control over the archipelago.A significant challenge to Dutch authority came in the form of a Javanese uprising, which was eventually suppressed during the Java War from 1825 to 1830. In the aftermath of this conflict, the Dutch implemented the Cultivation System in 1830, a policy that forced Javanese peasants to work on government-owned plantations for 60 days each year. 
• This system proved to be a source of immense wealth for the Dutch, but it was eventually abolished in a more liberal period after 1870.In 1901, the Dutch introduced the Ethical Policy, which aimed to improve indigenous education and implement modest political reforms.The Dutch colonialists established a privileged upper class comprising soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers, and pioneers. They lived alongside the indigenous population but occupied the top position in a rigid social and racial caste system. The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of citizens: European and indigenous. In 1920, a third class, Foreign Easterners, was added.Infrastructure development, particularly the upgrading of ports and roads, was a high priority for the Dutch. 
• This was aimed at modernizing the economy, boosting local wages, facilitating commerce, and expediting military movements.For much of the colonial period, Dutch control over its territories in the Indonesian archipelago was tenuous. It was only in the early 20th century, three centuries after the establishment of the first Dutch trading post, that the full extent of colonial territory was established, and direct colonial rule was exerted.Portuguese Timor, now East Timor, remained under Portuguese rule until 1975 when it was invaded by Indonesia. The Indonesian government declared the territory an Indonesian province, but it was relinquished in 1999 following a United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination. East Timor became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century on May 20, 2002.

(e) Indonesian National Awakening:

• In October 1908, the first nationalist movement in Indonesia, Budi Utomo, was established.
• On September 10, 1912, the first nationalist mass movement, Sarekat Islam, was formed.
• In response to the nationalist movements after World War I, the Dutch implemented repressive measures. The leaders of the nationalist movements primarily came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had received their education in the Netherlands.
• After World War I, Indonesian communists associated with the Third International began to dominate the nationalist movement. The repression of the nationalist movement resulted in numerous arrests, including that of Sukarno, Indonesia's future first president, who was imprisoned for political activities on December 29, 1929. Other prominent figures arrested included Mohammad Hatta, the first Vice President of Indonesia, and Sutan Sjahrir, who later became the first Prime Minister of Indonesia.
• In 1914, exiled Dutch socialist Henk Sneevliet founded the Indies Social Democratic Association. Initially a small forum of Dutch socialists, this group later transformed into the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) in 1924.
• In the post-World War I period, the Dutch strongly suppressed all attempts at change, leading to the growth of the PKI.
• Between 1926 and 1927, the PKI led a revolt against Dutch colonialism and harsh repression, primarily based on strikes by urban workers. However, these strikes and the revolt were suppressed by the Dutch authorities.
• Sukarno was released from prison in December 1931 but was re-arrested on August 1, 1933.

(f) Japanese Occupation:

• The Japanese invasion and occupation of Indonesia during World War II marked the end of Dutch rule and revitalized the suppressed Indonesian independence movement.
• In May 1940, early in World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege. Negotiations with the Japanese for aviation fuel supplies collapsed in June 1941, leading to the Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia starting in December 1941.
• In December 1941, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese support for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government. The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in March 1942.
• In July 1942, Sukarno accepted Japan’s offer to rally public support for the Japanese war effort. However, many individuals in areas deemed important for the war effort faced torture, sex slavery, arbitrary arrests, executions, and other war crimes. Thousands taken from Indonesia as war laborers suffered or died due to mistreatment and starvation. People of Dutch and mixed Dutch-Indonesian descent were particularly targeted during the Japanese occupation.
• In March 1945, Japan organized an Indonesian committee (BPUPKI) to discuss independence. At its first meeting, Muhammad Yamin proposed that the new nation should include British Borneo, British Malaya, Portuguese Timor, and all pre-war territories of the Dutch East Indies. The committee drafted the 1945 Constitution, which remains in force today, although it has been amended.
• Japan planned to announce Indonesian independence on August 24, 1945. However, after Japan's surrender, Sukarno unilaterally proclaimed Indonesian independence on August 17, 1945. A later UN report indicated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.

(g) Indonesian National Revolution:

• Under pressure from radical and politicized youth groups, Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian independence on August 17, 1945, just two days after the Japanese Emperor's surrender. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) appointed Sukarno as President and Hatta as Vice President. They received support from the Indonesian wartime military (PETA), youth groups, and others.
• The Netherlands, initially supported by the British, attempted to re-establish their rule, leading to a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle. Indonesian nationalists attacked returning Allied troops, and there were more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war. After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly reoccupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now Jakarta), making Yogyakarta in central Java the capital of the nationalist forces.
• Negotiations with the nationalists resulted in two major truce agreements, but disputes over their implementation and mutual provocations led to renewed conflict each time.
• Within four years, the Dutch had recaptured almost all of Indonesia, but guerrilla resistance, particularly led by Commander Nasution on Java, continued. On December 27, 1949, after four years of sporadic warfare and strong criticism of the Dutch by the UN, the Netherlands officially recognized Indonesian sovereignty under the federal structure of the United States of Indonesia (RUSI).
• On August 17, 1950, exactly five years after the proclamation of independence, Sukarno dissolved the last of the federal states and proclaimed a single unitary Republic of Indonesia.

The Philippines: A Historical Overview

(a) Spanish Colonization

Arrival and Claiming of the Islands:

• In 1521, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines and claimed the islands for Spain.

Beginning of Colonization:

• Spanish explorer Miguel Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and established the first Hispanic settlements in Cebu.
• After relocating to Panay island and forming a coalition with native allies and Spanish soldiers, the Spaniards marched on Islamic Manila.

Establishment of Manila as the Capital:

• Under Spanish rule, Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies in 1571.
• Spanish authorities suppressed the Tondo Conspiracy (1587–1588), a plot against colonial rule, and defeated the Chinese warlord and pirate Limahong.

Political Unity and Administration:

• Spanish rule brought significant political unity to the fragmented states of the archipelago.
• From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. After the Mexican War of Independence, it was administered directly from Madrid.

Trade and Cultural Exchange:

• Trade introduced new foods from the Americas, including corn, tomatoes, potatoes, chili peppers, and pineapples.
• Roman Catholic missionaries converted most lowland inhabitants to Christianity and established schools, a university, and hospitals.
• A Spanish decree in 1863 introduced free public schooling, but mass public education efforts primarily occurred during the American period.

Resistance and External Challenges:

• During its rule, Spain faced various indigenous revolts and external challenges from Chinese pirates, the Dutch, and the Portuguese.
• British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years’ War, but Spanish rule was restored following the 1763 Treaty of Paris.

Changes in the 19th Century:

• In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade, leading to social shifts.
• Criollos (Spaniards born in the Philippines) and mestizos (those of mixed ancestry) became wealthy, and Latin American settlers began occupying government positions traditionally held by peninsulares (Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula).
• The ideals of revolution began to spread through the islands.

Cavite Mutiny and Revolutionary Sentiments:

• Criollo dissatisfaction culminated in the 1872 Cavite Mutiny, a precursor to the Philippine Revolution.
• The execution of three priests known as Gomburza by colonial authorities in 1872 fueled revolutionary sentiments and inspired a propaganda movement in Spain advocating for political reforms in the Philippines.
• José Rizal, a key figure in this movement, was executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion.

Rise of the Katipunan and the Philippine Revolution:

• As reform attempts faced resistance, Andrés Bonifacio established the secret society Katipunan in 1892, aiming for independence from Spain through armed revolt.
• The Philippine Revolution was initiated by Bonifacio and the Katipunan in 1896.
• Bonifacio’s leadership was eventually challenged by Emilio Aguinaldo, who emerged as a leader of the revolution.

Spanish–American War and Independence:

• The Spanish–American War, which began in Cuba and spread to the Philippines, led to Aguinaldo declaring Philippine independence from Spain.
• The First Philippine Republic was established in Barasoain Church in 1899.

(b) American Period

• The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States as a result of the latter’s victory in the Spanish-American War. A compensation of 20 million US dollars was paid to Spain according to the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris.
• As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the nascent First Philippine Republic, the Philippine–American War broke out, the First Republic was defeated, and the archipelago was administered under an Insular Government.
• The Americans then suppressed the sub-states the First Republic had fractured into: mainly, the Sultanate of Sulu, as well as the insurgent Tagalog Republic, the Cantonal Republic of Negros, in the Visayas, and the Republic of Zamboanga, in Mindanao.
• During this era, a renaissance in Philippine culture occurred, with the expansion of Philippine cinema and literature. Daniel Burnham built an architectural plan for Manila which would have transformed it into a modern city.
• In 1935, the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president. He designated a national language and introduced women’s suffrage and land reform.
• Plans for independence over the next decade were interrupted by World War II when the Japanese Empire invaded and the Second Philippine Republic of José P. Laurel was established as a collaborator state. Many atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war such as the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre that culminated during the Battle of Manila (fought between American plus Filipino joined forces and Japanese forces in Manila from 3 February – 3 March 1945).
• In 1944, Quezon died in exile in the United States and Sergio Osmeña succeeded him. Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945.
• On October 24, 1945, the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations and the following year, on July 4, 1946, it became recognized by the United States as independent.

Burma

Burma, also known as Myanmar, was colonized by Britain after a series of conflicts known as the Anglo-Burmese Wars, which took place between 1824 and 1885. The expansion of British control in Burma led to various issues along its borders, particularly as these borders drew closer to British territories in India. This resulted in problems related to refugees and military operations crossing poorly defined borders.

First Anglo-Burmese War:

• The First Anglo-Burmese War occurred from 1824 to 1826 and ended with a victory for the British East India Company.
• As a result of the Treaty of Yandabo, Burma was forced to cede territories it had previously conquered in Assam, Manipur, and Arakan.
• The British also gained control of Tenasserim, which they intended to use as a bargaining tool in future negotiations with either Burma or Siam (now Thailand).
• Throughout the 19th century, the British East India Company became increasingly interested in the resources and central regions of Burma during a period of significant territorial expansion.

Second Anglo-Burmese War:

• In 1852, Commodore Lambert was sent to Burma by Lord Dalhousie to address various minor issues related to the previous treaty.
• The Burmese made concessions, including the removal of a governor whom the British had made responsible for the problems.
• However, Lambert provoked a naval confrontation under questionable circumstances, leading to the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1852.
• This war resulted in the British annexation of Pegu province, later renamed Lower Burma.
• The Second Anglo-Burmese War also triggered a palace revolution in Burma, leading to the replacement of King Pagan Min by his half-brother, Mindon Min.

Third Anglo-Burmese War:

• King Mindon Min attempted to modernize Burma to resist British encroachments and established a fortified new capital at Mandalay.
• Despite these efforts, the British declared war again in 1885, citing reasons such as King Thibaw Min's alleged tyranny and inability to maintain order.
• The Third Anglo-Burmese War resulted in the complete annexation of Burma by the British.
• With the fall of Mandalay on January 1, 1886, all of Burma came under British rule.

Colonial Era:

• During the colonial period, many Indians migrated to Burma as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers, and traders.
• Along with the Anglo-Burmese community, they dominated commercial and civil life in Burma.
• Rangoon (now Yangon) became the capital of British Burma and a significant port between Calcutta and Singapore.

Rise of Nationalism and Independence Movement:

• Burmese resentment towards British rule was strong, leading to violent riots in Yangon until the 1930s.
• Discontent was fueled by the British disrespect for Burmese culture, such as their refusal to remove shoes when entering pagodas.
• Buddhist monks emerged as leaders of the independence movement, with figures like U Wisara, who died in prison after a long hunger strike, becoming symbols of resistance.
• On April 1, 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain, with Ba Maw as its first Prime Minister and Premier.
• Ba Maw was a strong advocate for Burmese self-rule and opposed British involvement in World War II.
• In 1940, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan, aiming for Burmese independence.

World War II and Aftermath:

• During World War II, Burma was devastated by fighting. Japanese troops advanced on Rangoon in March 1942, leading to the collapse of British administration.
• A Burmese Executive Administration led by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942.
• British and American special forces, like the Chindits and Merrill's Marauders, operated behind Japanese lines in Burma.
• Allied offensives starting in late 1944 eventually led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945.
• Many Burmese initially fought for the Japanese but later switched allegiance to the Allies.
• Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement in 1947, ensuring the independence of Burma as a unified state and granting autonomy to ethnic regions.
• Despite becoming Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council in 1947, Aung San was assassinated in July 1947.
• On January 4, 1948, Burma became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister.
• Unlike most former British colonies, Burma did not join the Commonwealth.

French Indochina

French Indochina, officially known as the Indochinese Federation since 1947, was a collection of colonies under the French colonial empire in Southeast Asia. The federation included the three Vietnamese regions of Tonkin (North), Annam (Central), and Cochinchina (South), along with Cambodia and later Laos and Kouang-Tchéou-Wan (Guangzhouwan).

Formation and Administration:

• In 1887, the federation was formed with the three Vietnamese regions and Cambodia. Laos was added in 1893, and Kouang-Tchéou-Wan in 1900.
• The capital was moved from Saigon (Cochinchina) to Hanoi (Tonkin) in 1902, then to Da Lat (Annam) in 1939, and back to Hanoi in 1945.
• After France's fall in World War II, Indochina was administered by Vichy France under Japanese supervision until Japan took full control between March and August 1945.

Resistance and War:

• From May 1941, the Viet Minh, a communist army led by Ho Chi Minh, began revolting against French rule, marking the start of the First Indochina War.
• In 1949, the anti-Communist State of Vietnam in Saigon, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, was granted independence.
• Following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the Viet Minh became the government of North Vietnam, while Bảo Đại's government continued in South Vietnam.

Vietnam

17th to 19th Century Relations:

• France's involvement in Vietnam began in the 17th century with Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes. By the 18th century, European involvement was mainly trade-focused.
• In the 19th century, France became heavily involved in Vietnam, often justifying actions as protecting Catholic missions. The Nguyễn Dynasty viewed Catholic missionaries as political threats.
• In 1862, France gained concessions from the Emperor, including three treaty ports in Annam and Tonkin and all of Cochinchina, the latter declared a French territory in 1864.

Protectorate Over Cambodia:

• In 1863, King Norodom of Cambodia requested a French protectorate, which was recognized by Siam (modern Thailand) in 1867.
• France controlled Cambodia, which was officially recognized by Siam in exchange for control over Battambang and Siem Reap provinces.
• These provinces would later be returned to Cambodia by a 1906 border treaty between France and Siam.

Establishment of French Indochina:

• Vietnam's independence was gradually eroded by France through military conquests between 1859 and 1885, supported by large Catholic militias.
• The southern third of Vietnam became the French colony of Cochinchina in 1862. By 1884, the entire country was under French rule and integrated into French Indochina in 1887.
• Control over northern Vietnam was secured by France after its victory over China in the Sino-French War (1884–85).
• French Indochina was formed in October 1887, consisting of Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina, and Cambodia, with Laos added after the Franco-Siamese War in 1893.
• The federation lasted until 1954.

French Administration:

• In the four protectorates, the French maintained control while allowing local rulers, such as the Emperors of Vietnam, Kings of Cambodia, and Kings of Luang Prabang, to act as figureheads.
• Significant political and cultural changes were imposed, including a modern education system and the propagation of Roman Catholicism.
• Most French settlers were concentrated in Cochinchina.

Resistance Movements:

• The Cần Vương movement rebelled against French rule but was defeated in the 1890s after a decade of resistance.
• Guerrillas of the Cần Vương movement targeted Vietnam's Christian population during this period.
• The French developed a plantation economy focused on exporting tobacco, indigo, tea, and coffee while ignoring calls for Vietnamese self-government and civil rights.
• Nationalist leaders like Phan Bội Châu, Phan Chu Trinh, Emperor Hàm Nghi, and Ho Chi Minh fought for independence.

Yên Bái Mutiny and World War II:

• The Yên Bái mutiny in 1930 by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party was easily suppressed.
• The French maintained control until World War II, when the Japanese invaded French Indochina in 1941.
• After the invasion, Japan exploited Vietnam's resources and occupied the country until March 1945.
• The Vietnamese Famine of 1945 caused up to two million deaths due to Japan's exploitation.

First Indochina War (1946-1954):

• The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, sought independence from France and the end of Japanese occupation.
• After Japan's defeat and the fall of its puppet Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, the Viet Minh proclaimed national independence on September 2, 1945.
• France attempted to reassert control, leading to conflict with the Viet Minh, who began a guerrilla campaign against the French in late 1946.
• The First Indochina War lasted until July 1954, culminating in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, where the French were defeated.

Geneva Accords and Partition:

• The Geneva Conference in 1954 resulted in the dissolution of French Indochina and the partition of Vietnam along the 17th parallel north.
• The Geneva Accords mandated free elections for reunification, which the United States and South Vietnam rejected.
• North Vietnam became the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, while the State of Vietnam, led by Emperor Bảo Đại, governed the South.
• Many northerners moved south during a 300-day period of free movement, fearing persecution by the communists.

Laos and Cambodia:

• Laos and Cambodia also gained independence in 1954 but were drawn into the Vietnam War.
• As the war progressed, Cambodia maintained a policy of neutrality, though it was considered sympathetic to the communist cause.
• King Sihanouk allowed the Vietnamese communists to use Cambodia as a sanctuary and supply route for their forces fighting in South Vietnam.

Conclusion:

• French Indochina, through its complex history of colonization, resistance, and eventual independence, played a significant role in shaping the modern nations of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
• The legacy of colonial rule, resistance movements, and international conflicts continues to influence these countries today.

Malaysia

Colonial Conquest and Control:

• 1511: Malacca is conquered by Portugal.
• 1641: Malacca falls into Dutch hands.
• 1786: The British Empire establishes a foothold in Malaya by leasing Penang from the Sultan of Kedah.
• 1819: The British obtain Singapore.
• 1824: Malacca comes under British control following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty.
• 1826: The British establish direct control over Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and Labuan, forming the crown colony of the Straits Settlements.

Federated and Unfederated Malay States:

• By the 20th century,British Residents advised the Malay rulers in the Federated Malay States—Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan.
• The Unfederated Malay States accepted British advisers around the same period.

Development and Immigration:

• Under British rule, there was significant immigration of Chinese and Indians as laborers.
• The area now known as Sabah came under British control as North Borneo between 1877 and 1878.
• Sarawak was ceded to James Brooke by the Sultan of Brunei in 1842, and the Brooke family ruled as the White Rajahs until 1946 when it became a Crown colony.

Japanese Occupation and Post-War Developments:

• During World War II, the Japanese occupied Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore, leading to increased ethnic tensions and the rise of nationalism.
• After the war, the Malayan Union was established in 1946 but faced opposition from Malays and was replaced by the Federation of Malaya, restoring Malay rulers' autonomy under British protection.

Malayan Emergency and Independence:

• From 1948 to 1960, the Malayan Emergency involved anti-insurgency campaigns against the Malayan Communist Party.
• Decolonization during the Cold War led to the independence of Malaya in 1957 and later Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak in 1963.

Formation of Malaysia:

• On September 16, 1963, Malaya federated with North Borneo (Sabah), Sarawak, and Singapore to form Malaysia, ending 144 years of British rule in Singapore.
• The union faced challenges due to distrust between Singapore and the Federal Government, leading to Singapore's expulsion in 1965.

Ceylon (Sri Lanka)

Portuguese Era:

• In 1505, Portuguese explorer Francisco de Almeida arrived in Sri Lanka, finding the island divided into seven warring kingdoms. The Portuguese began to establish control, founding a fort in Colombo in 1517.
• The Portuguese gradually extended their influence over the coastal areas, facing intermittent warfare with local kingdoms.
• In 1592, the Sinhalese moved their capital to Kandy, a more secure location. The Sinhalese sought help from the Dutch to resist Portuguese control.

Dutch Era:

• In 1638, the Dutch attacked the Portuguese but initially reached an agreement. By 1656, the Dutch had captured Colombo.
• The Dutch controlled the whole island except for the kingdom of Kandy by 1660. They persecuted Catholics (descendants of Portuguese settlers) but left Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims largely alone.
• The Dutch heavily taxed the population and left a mixed Dutch-Sri Lankan people known as the Burghers as a legacy of their rule.
• In 1659, British sea captain Robert Knox landed in Sri Lanka and was captured by the king of Kandy. His later escape and writings drew British attention to the island.

British Era:

• During the Napoleonic Wars, Britain occupied the coastal areas of Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) in 1796 out of fear that the French might seize the island.
• In 1802, the Dutch part of the island was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Amiens, becoming a crown colony. The British invaded the Kingdom of Kandy in 1803 but were repulsed.
• In 1815, the British occupied Kandy after the 2nd Kandyan War, marking the end of Sri Lankan independence. The Uva Rebellion was brutally suppressed, and the Kandyan peasantry lost their lands due to the Wastelands Ordinance.
• The British found the uplands suitable for coffee, tea, and rubber cultivation. By the mid-19th century, Ceylon tea became a staple in the British market, leading to great wealth for a small class of white tea planters.
• To work the estates, the British imported large numbers of Tamil workers from South India as indentured laborers, who soon made up 10% of the island’s population.
• The British favored Burghers, certain high-caste Sinhalese, and Tamils, exacerbating divisions. They introduced democratic elements, with the Burghers receiving self-government as early as 1833.
• Constitutional development began in 1909, with universal suffrage introduced in 1931, despite opposition from the Sinhalese, Tamil, and Burgher elites.

Independence Movement:

• The Ceylon National Congress (CNC) was founded to demand greater autonomy, but it split along ethnic and caste lines.
• The refusal of Ceylon Tamils to accept minority status led to the CNC's breakup. The independence movement developed into two streams: “constitutionalists” seeking independence through gradual modification and more radical groups like the Colombo Youth League and the Jaffna Youth Congress calling for outright independence.
• The Donoughmore Commission reforms and the Soulbury Commission recommendations were results of constitutionalist efforts.
• The Marxist Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), emerging from the Youth Leagues in 1935, made outright independence a key demand, alongside replacing English with Sinhala and Tamil as official languages.
• Despite being a minority, the LSSP's views were seen with suspicion by the British administration.
• The Soulbury Commission was a significant outcome of the 1930s agitation for constitutional reform. Tamil leadership under G. G. Ponnambalam rejected Ceylonese identity, leading to the first Sinhala-Tamil riot in 1939.
• Ponnambalam's “50-50” policy aimed for equal parliamentary representation for Tamils and Sinhalese, and he attacked the Sinhalese and the British for favoring Buddhists.
• The Soulbury Commission rejected Ponnambalam's communal submissions and noted their unacceptable nature.
• Meanwhile, D. S. Senanayake and others lobbied the Commission without official confrontation, with unofficial submissions shaping the 1944 draft constitution.

Second World War

• During World War II, Sri Lanka was a British base against the Japanese. Opposition to the war was led by Marxist organizations.
• After the Japanese bombed Colombo, Indian merchants fled, removing a major political problem for the Senanayake government. The Marxist leaders also escaped to India.
• The Senanayake government used the war to strengthen its rapport with the commanding elite. Ceylon became crucial to the British Empire, with Lord Louis Mountbatten using Colombo as his headquarters.
• Sinhalese continued to agitate for independence and sovereignty, using the war to establish a special relationship with Britain.
• Sri Lankans in Singapore and Malaysia formed the Lanka Regiment of the Indian National Army.

Post-War Developments:

• The Sinhalese leader Don Stephen Senanayake left the CNC over the issue of independence and formed the United National Party (UNP) in 1946.
• In the 1947 elections, the UNP won a minority of seats in Parliament but formed a coalition with the Sinhalese Maha Sabha and the Tamil Congress.
• The Soulbury constitution granted Dominion status, with independence proclaimed on February 4, 1948. D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon.

Brunei

Spanish Arrival and British Intervention:

• The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Brunei in the 16th century.
• The British intervened in Brunei's affairs multiple times. In July 1846, Britain attacked Brunei due to internal conflicts regarding the rightful Sultan.

British Residents and Petroleum Discovery:

• Under the Supplementary Protectorate Agreement in 1906, British residents were introduced to advise the Sultan on administration.
• Over time, these residents gained more executive control than the Sultan, and this system ended in 1959.
• Petroleum was discovered in 1929 after several unsuccessful attempts.

Japanese Occupation during WWII:

• During World War II, the Japanese invaded Brunei on December 16, 1941, just eight days after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
• During the occupation, Japanese language was taught in schools, government officers were required to learn Japanese, and local currency was replaced.

Post-War British Administration and Self-Governance:

• After World War II, Brunei was governed by the British Military Administration (BMA), mainly composed of Australian officers and servicemen.
• Before 1941, the Governor of the Straits Settlements, based in Singapore, acted as the British High Commissioner for Brunei, Sarawak, and North Borneo.
• The first British High Commissioner for Brunei was Sir Charles Ardon Clarke, the Governor of Sarawak.

Constitution and Brunei Revolt:

• In 1959, Brunei was declared a self-governing state with a new constitution, although the UK retained control over foreign affairs, security, and defense.
• A small rebellion against the monarchy in 1962, known as the Brunei Revolt, was suppressed with UK assistance. This rebellion affected Brunei’s decision to opt out of the North Borneo Federation and the Malaysian Federation.

Independence:

• Brunei gained independence from the United Kingdom on January 1, 1984.

Hong Kong

Early British Rule:

• In 1839, the Qing dynasty's refusal to support opium imports led to the First Opium War between Britain and China.
• China's defeat resulted in British forces occupying Hong Kong Island on January 20, 1841.
• Hong Kong was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpee, which was never ratified due to disputes between British and Chinese officials.
• On August 29, 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to Britain under the Treaty of Nanking. The British established a Crown colony and founded Victoria City in 1843.

Expansion and Development:

• Following the Second Opium War, Britain expanded the Crown Colony to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.
• The establishment of a free port in Victoria City transformed Hong Kong into a major entrepôt, attracting immigrants from China and Europe.
• Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper class, racial segregation persisted under British colonial policies. Most Chinese residents lacked political representation in the colonial government, with a small number of Chinese elites serving as intermediaries between the government and the local population.

New Territories and Post-War Growth:

• In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease for the New Territories from China under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory.
• Post-World War II, Hong Kong's population surged with skilled migrants fleeing from the Chinese Civil War and the Communist regime in mainland China.
• These newcomers, particularly from major port cities like Shanghai and Canton, established businesses, contributing to Hong Kong's economic growth. By the early 1990s, Hong Kong emerged as a global financial center, a regional logistics hub, and one of the Four Asian Tigers, known for its laissez-faire market policies.

Transfer of Sovereignty:

• Hong Kong was acquired through three treaties: the Treaty of Nanking (1842), Treaty of Beijing (1860), and the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory (1898). While Hong Kong Island and Kowloon were ceded in perpetuity, the New Territories were under a 99-year lease.
• On July 1, 1997, sovereignty over Hong Kong was transferred from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China, marking the end of 156 years of British colonial rule. This event also symbolized the conclusion of the British Empire.
• In March 1979, Governor of Hong Kong Murray MacLehose discussed Hong Kong's sovereignty with Deng Xiaoping during his visit to the PRC.
• British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher sought the PRC's agreement for continued British presence in Hong Kong, but the PRC insisted on reclaiming the New Territories and disregarding the unequal treaties that ceded Hong Kong Island and Kowloon to Britain.
• The Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1985 stipulated that the PRC would resume sovereignty over Hong Kong on July 1, 1997, with the United Kingdom agreeing to restore Hong Kong to the PRC on the same date.
• The Joint Declaration established the principle of "One Country, Two Systems," ensuring that Hong Kong's capitalist system and way of life would remain unchanged for 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty.

Hong Kong thus became China's first Special Administrative Region (SAR).

Macau

Early Portuguese Settlement and Trade Rights:

• In 1513, Portuguese explorer Jorge Álvares became the first Portuguese to land in China.
• 1535– Portuguese traders secured rights to anchor ships in Macau's harbors for trading, but not to stay onshore.
• 1552-1553– Temporary permission granted to erect storage sheds onshore for drying goods.
• 1557– Portuguese established a permanent settlement in Macau, paying annual rent. They continued paying tribute until 1863.

Trade and Restrictions:

• By 1564, Portugal dominated western trade with India, Japan, and China.
• 1631– Chinese authorities restricted Portuguese commerce in China to Macau.

Self-Administration and Church Establishment:

• As Portuguese settlers increased, demands for self-administration arose, achieved in the 1840s.
• 1576– Pope Gregory XIII established the Roman Catholic Diocese of Macau.
• 1583– Portuguese allowed to form a Senate for social and economic issues under Chinese supervision.

Defensive Struggles and Expansion:

• Macau prospered as a port but faced attacks from the Dutch, notably in the Battle of Macau in 1622, which the Portuguese repelled.
• Following the Opium War from 1839-42, Portugal expanded its territory by occupying Taipa and Coloane in 1851 and 1864, respectively.

Sino-Portuguese Treaty and Administration:

• 1887– The Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Amity and Commerce was signed, granting Portugal perpetual rights to govern Macau.
• This arrangement aimed to benefit both parties, with Macau cooperating in opium smuggling and China benefiting from customs taxes.
• Portugal promised not to alienate Macau without China's agreement, securing British commercial interests.

Changes in Administration and World War II:

• In 1928, the KMT government in China abrogated the Treaty of Amity and Commerce.
• A new Sino-Portuguese Friendship and Trade Treaty was signed, maintaining Portuguese sovereignty over Macau.
• During World War II, Macau remained neutral while other Portuguese territories were occupied by Japan.
• Japanese influence grew, leading to a virtual protectorate over Macau.

Post-War Period and Transition to Chinese Sovereignty:

• After the Pacific War, Macau became a refuge for those fleeing the Chinese civil war.
• In 1949, the Chinese government declared the Sino-Portuguese Treaty invalid but maintained the status quo.
• Riots in 1966 reflected dissatisfaction with Portuguese rule.
• After the Portuguese dictatorship fell in 1974, the new government decided to relinquish overseas possessions.
• In 1976, Macau was redefined as a Chinese territory under Portuguese administration, gaining significant autonomy.

Transfer of Sovereignty and Economic Growth:

• In 1986, negotiations between China and Portugal began regarding Macau's future.
• 1997– Macau became a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China, with a high degree of autonomy.
• Post-1999, Macau's economy flourished, driven by tourism from mainland China and the growth of new casinos.

Thailand (Siam): A Unique Case of Independence

The Buffer State Strategy:

• Thailand, known as Siam until 1939, managed to remain independent during the colonial period primarily because it served as a buffer state between French Indochina and the British Empire.
• This strategic position made it valuable to both powers, who preferred to have Siam as a neutral zone rather than a contested territory.

Modernization and Reforms:

• Under Kings Rama IV and Rama V, Siam underwent significant reforms and modernization efforts.
• Rama II initiated reforms that included the construction of railways and telegraph lines, which helped unify the previously remote and semi-autonomous provinces.
• The currency was tied to the gold standard, and a modern taxation system replaced older methods of arbitrary exactions and labor service.

Foreign Relations and Treaties:

• As British influence grew in the region with the occupation of Penang in 1785 and the founding of Singapore in 1819, Siam signed the Burney Treaty to establish a uniform taxation system, reduce taxes on foreign trade, and abolish some royal monopolies.
• These concessions increased trade and contributed to Siam's wealth, allowing for a better-equipped army.
• With the French occupation of Saigon in 1859, France began exerting influence over Vietnam and Cambodia. To counter French territorial ambitions,Rama IV offered economic concessions to the British in hopes of securing their support.

Siam's Regional Dominance:

• In the 19th century, Siam was the largest and strongest power in the region, with a sphere of influence nearly double its current size.
• European expansion saw Britain consolidating control over what is now India and moving into Myanmar, while France solidified its hold on Vietnam.
• Siam found itself in between these two burgeoning empires, with different strategies employed by each regarding Siam's status.

Tensions with France and Britain:

• France, after conquering Saigon, sought to expand into areas under Siamese influence, particularly Cambodia, Laos, and parts of the Malay Peninsula.
• When France pushed into Laos in 1893, Siamese resistance led to a military conflict. The French, seeking to weaken Siam, aimed to take over all of Siam.
• Rama V appealed to the British for assistance, but Britain was more interested in maintaining Siam as a buffer state between its territories.

French Expansion and Siamese Resistance:

• Despite French advances, Siam resisted ceding territory. In 1896, British and French foreign ministers met to discuss dividing Siam, but the British preferred to keep Siam independent as a buffer zone.
• Through diplomatic maneuvering, the Siamese Ambassador to Europe successfully lobbied for Siam's complete independence.
• In 1896, Britain and France agreed to support Siam's independence against any third-party threats.

Final Territorial Adjustments:

• Although Siam had to concede some territory, it retained most of its land and all areas inhabited by Thai speakers.
• Subsequent territorial adjustments saw France and Britain take additional lands, but Siam remained largely intact.
• This diplomatic success allowed Siam to maintain its sovereignty while navigating the pressures of colonial expansion in Southeast Asia.