Conflict between the English and the Nawabs of Bengal | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Battle of Plassey

• June 23, 1757: The British East India Company achieved a crucial victory against Siraj-ud-daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, in the Battle of Plassey.
• This victory: Marked the beginning of British rule in Bengal, which eventually expanded across much of India for the next century.
• The battle: Took place near Plassey, along the banks of the Bhagirathi River, approximately 150 kilometers north of Calcutta and south of Murshidabad.
• Murshidabad: Was the then capital of Bengal.

Background and Causes of Battle 

• By the early 18th century, the British East India Company had established a strong presence in India with key stations in Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay.
• The British formed alliances with various Indian princes and Nawabs, offering protection in exchange for concessions.
• Rivalry with the Dutch and Portuguese had diminished, and the French were emerging as a competitor with their own East India Company.
• Alwardi Khan, Nawab of Bengal from 1740, was strict with Europeans but allowed them some privileges during his conflicts with the Marathas.
• Alwardi Khan was wary of the British and French proxy wars in southern India and sought to avoid similar conflicts in Bengal.
• After Alwardi Khan’s death in April 1756, his grandson Siraj-ud-daulah, known for his fierce temper and suspicion of European profits, succeeded him.
• The British aimed to dominate Bengal and eliminate the Nawab's power.
• Fort William was built in Calcutta to protect British interests.
• Conflict arose when Siraj-ud-daulah ordered the British to cease their unauthorized activities.
• When they refused, he surrounded British posts, leading to the capture of Calcutta on June 16, 1756.
• The fort surrendered on June 20, 1756, after a brief defense by the British garrison.

The Black Hole of Calcutta

• Some historians question the accuracy of Holwell's claims due to the presence of many non-combatants in the fort at the time of its capture.
• In 1915, British scholar J.H. Little criticized Holwell's reliability as a witness, suggesting that his account may not be trustworthy.
• There are doubts about whether 146 European adults could fit in a space of 267 square feet.
• There was a lack of independent confirmation of Holwell's account, leading some to believe that such an incident might not have occurred as described.
• Only forty-three members of the garrison were reported missing after the incident, raising questions about the maximum number of deaths.

Response of British

When the news of the fall of Calcutta reached Madras on 16 August 1756, the Council promptly dispatched an expeditionary force from Madras under Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson.

• A letter from the Council of Fort St. George stated that the aim of the expedition was not only to re-establish British settlements in Bengal but also to secure recognition of the Company’s privileges and compensation for its losses without provoking war. It emphasized the need to support any signs of dissatisfaction and ambition among the Nawab’s subjects.
• Clive took command of the land forces, which included 900 Europeans and 1500 sepoys, while Watson led the naval squadron. The fleet entered the Hooghly River in December.
• On 29 December, the force expelled the enemy from the fort of Budge Budge. Clive and Watson then advanced on Calcutta on 2 January 1757, where the garrison of 500 men surrendered after minimal resistance.
• With Calcutta recaptured, the Council was reinstated, and a plan of action against the Nawab was formulated. The fortifications of Fort William were strengthened, and a defensive position was established in the north-east of the city.

The Bengal Campaign

• On 9 January 1757, a group of 650 men led by Captain Coote and Major Kilpatrick attacked and looted the town of Hooghly, located 37 km north of Calcutta.
• In response to this attack, the Nawab gathered his army and marched towards Calcutta, arriving on 3 February and setting up camp beyond the Maratha Ditch.
• Despite their initial successes, the British forces were cut off from trade and resupply throughout the war. The Nawab aimed to prolong the conflict, but he made the tactical error of trying to quickly end the war.
• The Nawab brought a large army to Calcutta, including 40,000 horses, 60,000 foot soldiers, and 50 elephants, and prepared to attack the city.
• In a decisive move, Clive launched a preemptive attack, which turned out to be a crucial decision. The Nawab's army was defeated, suffering heavy losses.
• The British lost 57 men, while the Nawab’s forces lost 1,300 men.
• Facing this unexpected defeat, Sirajuddaula agreed to negotiate with the British. On 9 February, the Treaty of Alinagar was signed, marking the end of the conflict.

Treaty of Alinagar (February 9, 1757)

• The Treaty of Alinagar was signed on February 9, 1757, between Robert Clive of the British East India Company and Siraj Ud Daula, the Nawab of Bengal. The treaty was named after the brief title 'Alinagar' given to Calcutta by Siraj after he took control of the city.
• Following a British attack that alarmed the Nawab, the treaty stipulated several terms:
  1. The Nawab agreed to restore the Company's factories.
  2. The Nawab would recognize all provisions of Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar's firman from 1717.
  3. All British goods passing through Bengal would be exempt from duties.
  4. The British would be allowed to fortify Calcutta and mint coins there.
• The Nawab withdrew his army to his capital, Murshidabad. The treaty was a precursor to the famous Battle of Plassey.
• Although there was a temporary peace, Clive had larger ambitions. He aimed not only to retake Calcutta but also to secure the Company's interests in Bengal more firmly and durably.
• After proving his military prowess, Clive planned to eliminate potential rivals to British power in Bengal through cunning strategies. His goal was to secure the Company's profits, not to rule Bengal directly. However, this would unintentionally lead to the British becoming the masters of one of the wealthiest regions in the world, far from their homeland.

Sacking of Chandernagore

• Due to the threat posed by Bussy and the ongoing Seven Years' War in Europe, the British Company focused on neutralizing the French threat in Bengal. Clive aimed to capture the French town of Chandernagore, located 32 km north of Calcutta.
• To determine the Nawab's potential response, Clive sought clarity on whether the Nawab would intervene if he attacked Chandernagore. The Nawab's vague replies led Clive to believe he had tacit approval for the attack.
• On March 14, Clive initiated hostilities against the town and fort of Chandernagore. The French anticipated support from the Nawab's forces in Hooghly, but the governor of Hooghly, Nand Kumar, had been bribed to remain inactive, preventing the Nawab from reinforcing Chandernagore.
• Despite the fort's strong defenses, Admiral Watson's squadron managed to break the blockade on March 23. The French raised a flag of truce on March 24.
• After plundering Chandernagore, Clive chose to disregard orders to return to Madras and instead remained in Bengal, moving his army north of the town of Hooghly.
• The Nawab was enraged upon learning of the attack on Chandernagore. His previous animosity towards the British resurfaced, prompting him to seek alliances against them. However, the Nawab was also concerned about threats from the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Durrani to the north and the Marathas to the west, limiting his ability to deploy his full force against the British.
• In response, Siraj engaged in secret negotiations with Jean Law, the chief of the French factory at Cossimbazar, and Bussy. The Nawab also moved a significant portion of his army under Rai Durlabh to Plassey, on the island of Cossimbazar.

Conspiracy Against Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah

• During the Seven Years' War in Europe (1756-1763), the French East India Company sent troops to support Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah against the British, reflecting the rivalry between France and England.
• The British, outnumbered and fearing French support for the Nawab, formed a conspiracy with Siraj-ud-Daulah's demoted army chief, Mir Jafar, and others.
• There was growing discontent against the Nawab within his court, with the Jagat Seths concerned about their wealth under Siraj's rule.
• The Jagat Seths, influential traders in Bengal, preferred the previous Nawab, Alivardi.
• William Watts, a representative of the British East India Company, informed Robert Clive about a conspiracy to overthrow the Nawab.
• Clive brought this information to the select committee in Calcutta, which supported the alliance with Mir Jafar.
• A treaty was established between the British and Mir Jafar, promising to help him become Nawab in exchange for military support and financial compensation.
• Mir Jafar and the Jagat Seths wanted to keep their alliance with the British a secret from Omichund.
• When Omichund discovered the plot, he demanded a larger share of three million rupees, threatening to expose the conspiracy.
• In response, Clive proposed creating two treaties: one real and one fake to placate Omichund and keep the conspiracy intact.

Battle of Plassey

• On June 14, Clive declared war on Siraj.
• On June 15, Siraj suspected Mir Jafar of colluding with the British and ordered an attack on his palace. Mir Jafar promised not to side with the British, but the Nawab's troops delayed their departure to Plassey due to unpaid wages, arriving only by June 21.
• The Battle of Plassey occurred on June 23, 1757, between Siraj-ud-daula, supported by the French, and Clive's forces. Siraj's army comprised 50,000 infantry and 28,000 cavalry, while Clive had only 3,000 men, including English soldiers.
• Mir Jafar, one of Siraj's commanders, did not engage in the battle despite being present. Only two of Siraj's generals fought fiercely, but Mir Madan's death demoralized the Nawab's forces.
• The battle was uncertain for hours until Mir Jafar advised Siraj to retreat. Distrusted by his generals and influenced by an astrologer's warning, Siraj fled the battlefield on a fast camel, with his army following.
• Siraj-ud-daula was eventually killed by Miran, the son of Mir Jafar, who then became the new Nawab of Murshidabad.

Aftermath

• The treaty between the British and Mir Jafar resulted in the British gaining control over land within the Maratha Ditch and 600 yards beyond it.
• The treaty included the Zamindari of 24 Parganas in Bengal.
• It confirmed the firman of 1717 and mandated the restitution of 22 million rupees to the British for their losses.
• The restitution included donations to the navy squadron, army, and committee.
• Due to the lower-than-expected wealth of Siraj-ud-daulah, a council decided on June 29 to pay half of the amount immediately.
• The payment was structured with two-thirds in coin and one-third in jewels and valuables.
• Omichand was left empty-handed from the treaty, leading to his insanity.
• In 1760, Clive returned to England, celebrated as the Victor of Plassey and the founder of British rule in India.
• He was honored with the title of Lord.
• At this time, the British did not control Bengal nor desire to do so; they sought more trading rights.
• Mir Jafar had ousted Siraj-ud-daula, and Clive had no intention of ruling Bengal.
• Clive deemed Bengal too extensive for a mercantile company.

Political Impact:

• The Battle of Plassey marked the beginning of British oppression in Bengal.
• Although not a significant military conflict, it showcased Lord Clive's diplomatic skills, leading to victory without much fighting.
• Some historians view the battle as a transaction where the bankers of Bengal and Mir Jafar betrayed the Nawab to the English.
• After Plassey, Bengal was plundered and placed at the disposal of the English, who considered it the most prosperous province due to its vast resources.

Economic Impact:

• Before the battle, the English Company was just one among many European traders in Bengal, facing heavy taxes imposed by the Nawabs.
• Post-Plassey, the English monopolized Bengal's trade and commerce, significantly impacting their trade liabilities.
• The British defeated the French at Masulipatam in 1759, securing the Northern Circars, and also defeated the Dutch.
• Plassey enabled the English to exert exclusive control over Bengal's trade and administration, marking a pivotal moment in India's fate.
• The plunder from Bengal contributed to the Industrial Revolution, which began around 1770, shortly after the battle.

Military Impact:

• Condition of common Bengalis deteriorated due to the Nawab's weakness, leading to lawlessness and economic exploitation by company servants.
• The British built and trained an army of native Indian Sepoys for further colonization and acquired buffer colonies in Singapore, Penang, Burma, Nepal, and Malacca.
• British advancements in Asia were supported by superior military, modern artillery, and Navy.
• The Battle of Plassey was a turning point in Indian history, marking the end of one era and the beginning of another, impacting not just Bengal but all of India.
• It was also crucial for the East India Company's success over its French rivals.

Mir Jafar (1757-1760)

• After the Battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar became the Nawab of Bengal, but his power was mostly a formality.
• He relied on the British East India Company for support and protection against foreign threats.
• A British army of 6,000 troops was stationed in Bengal to assist him, while real authority shifted to the Company.
• Mir Jafar was ineffective, and throughout his rule, actual control remained with the British.
• He faced severe financial difficulties as Company officials extorted money from him in various ways.
• He was also obligated to pay a large sum to Robert Clive as a thank-you.
• The Company pressured him for installment payments, causing Mir Jafar significant stress under the financial burden and the growing dominance of the British.
• Meanwhile, the Dutch conspired with Mir Jafar against the British in 1759.

Battle of Chinsura/Bedara (1759)

• Feeling undermined by the British, Mir Jafar began to support the Dutch in their efforts to expel the British from Bengal.
• In late 1759, the Dutch sent ships and troops from Java to Bengal, ostensibly to reinforce their settlement at Chinsura, despite the lack of formal war between Britain and Holland.
• However, Clive launched a counter-offensive and defeated the larger Dutch force on November 25, 1759, in the Battle of Chinsura.
• He also sought revenge for the Amboyna massacre, where English Company personnel were executed by the Dutch in 1623 due to accusations of treason.
• In the same year,Ali Gohour, the Mughal Emperor's eldest son, rebelled against his father and besieged Patna with the help of Shuja-ud-daula, the Nawab of Oudh.
• Feeling overwhelmed, Mir Jafar turned to the British for assistance. With their help, he defeated Ali Gohour's forces.
• As a result of this support, Clive was granted the right to collect revenue from South Calcutta, known as Clive's Jagir, which further depleted Mir Jafar's resources by thirty thousand rupees annually.
• When Clive returned to England due to ill health, he was honored with a title as Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey, and secured a seat in the British House of Commons.
• After Clive's departure, Company officials became increasingly corrupt and wealthy through unscrupulous means, leaving Mir Jafar exhausted from constant payments and with an empty treasury.

Mir Kasim (1761-1763)

• Mir Jafar, the Nawab of Bengal, was under pressure from the British due to their increasing demands and his empty treasury.
• His inability to meet these demands led to a decline in his interest in the government and made him unpopular among the people of Bengal.
• The British decided to replace Mir Jafar with his son-in-law, Mir Kasim, who promised to pay them more.
• Mir Kasim was seen as more capable and ambitious.
• When Mir Kasim took over as Nawab from 1761 to 1763, he was determined to assert his independence from British control.
• He moved the capital from Murshidabad to Monghyr to distance himself from British influence.
• Mir Kasim strengthened his position by reorganizing his military, setting up arms factories, and training his army in Western military techniques.
• He also worked to collect state arrears to fill his empty treasury.
• Despite complaints from British officials like Vansittart, Mir Kasim refused to reduce his military forces, which irritated the British.
  

Dastak Abuse: The Dastak was a trade permit granted to the East India Company by the Mughal government, allowing them to trade in Bengal without paying customs duties.

• This right was meant for the company alone, as per the farman of 1717, but was often abused by private traders.
• Private traders misused the Dastak by producing it to government chowkies, leading to revenue loss for the government and unfair competition for native merchants.
• Sirajuddaula opposed this abuse, causing conflict with the company.
• Mir Kasim also opposed the misuse of Dastak and, in an effort to protect local merchants, abolished inland duties.
• This action led to increased hostilities with the British.
• In 1763, Mir Kasim attacked Company offices in Patna, killing several Europeans, including the Resident, Warren Hastings.
• Warren Hastings, appointed as the British Resident in Murshidabad in 1758, was frustrated by trading abuses in Bengal.
• He discovered that some merchants were exploiting the situation for personal gain under the protection of the British flag.
• Hastings believed these abuses were damaging Britain's reputation and urged the authorities in Calcutta to address the issue.
• However, his proposals were rejected, and he faced criticism from other council members who had profited from the trade.
• Feeling disillusioned, Hastings considered resigning, but his departure was delayed by renewed fighting in Bengal.
• He eventually resigned in December 1764 and returned to Britain.