Contribution of Thomas Hobbes, Ayn Rand, Carol Gilligan, Jean Paul Sartre | UPSC Mains: Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude PDF Download

Thomas Hobbes’ Psychological Egoism

• Hobbes' moral philosophy emphasizes that what we should do is largely determined by the context or situation we find ourselves in. He asserts that when political authority exists, our duty is clear—namely, to obey those in power.
• According to Hobbes, society arises from self-interest and fear rather than a natural compassion for others. He defends as natural and rational the concern each individual has for their own well-being and happiness. In a state of nature, the fundamental rule of life is self-preservation, and individuals have the right to do whatever is necessary to achieve this.
• Hobbes argues that civil authority and law form the foundation of morality. He contends that morality requires a social authority, which must be held by a sovereign power with absolute authority. Morality is therefore based on law, which is dictated by the absolute sovereign. 
• Moral behavior is only possible through government institutions that can reward good actions and punish wrongdoing. Without civil authority, following moral principles would be both foolish and perilous. People are moral only when it contributes to their personal security, and the essential condition for security is absolute civil power.

Ayn Rand: Ethical Egoism

• Ayn Rand, an American philosopher (1905-1982), strongly advocated for ethical egoism in the 20th century. She passionately promoted the virtue of rational selfishness, emphasizing the importance of rational choice. Key values in her ethical framework include freedom, personal dignity, self-reliance, self-belief, and the dignity of labor.
• Rand believed that humans must use reason to choose their goals or face failure. In her view of human nature, individuals don't just seek food; they must engage in productive work, make choices, think critically, and acquire knowledge to live. Hence, she considered selfishness, specifically the pursuit of one’s rational self-interest, as a virtue. For Rand, focusing on one’s own interests is not immoral.
• She opposed altruistic morality, which teaches individuals to sacrifice their own interests for the benefit of others. While she acknowledged that altruism is possible, she argued that it is undesirable. According to Rand, pure altruism treats people as sacrificial beings, and dictators often use altruistic ideals to suppress individual rights and freedom of thought and speech.
• Rand asserted that there is no moral wrong in helping others, but it is not an ethical duty to do so. One may choose to help others or work to reform society, but it should be a personal, free, and rational decision.

Feminist Ethics: Carol Gilligan

• Feminist Ethics seeks to revise, reformulate, or rethink traditional ethical theories. Feminists have developed a wide range of gender-centered approaches to ethics. For centuries, ethical thinkers have focused on two major moral principles: 'Justice' and 'love.' However, the concept of 'love' has often been replaced by ideas like 'goodness' and 'utility.' 
• Carol Gilligan, along with other feminists, has highlighted issues related to traits and behaviors typically associated with women, particularly their caregiving roles. Gilligan’s ethical theory emphasizes the "communal nature of women" and is known as the "ethic of care," in contrast to the traditional male-oriented "ethic of justice."

Ethic of Care and Ethic of Justice

• Carol Gilligan made the distinction between the Ethic of Care and the Ethic of Justice. According to Gilligan, under the ethic of justice, men tend to judge themselves as guilty if they commit a wrong. In contrast, under the ethic of care, women are often hesitant to make such judgments. This reluctance to judge may reflect a deeper care and concern for others. Women, according to Gilligan, define themselves within the context of human relationships and evaluate their actions based on "care and concern." As a result, their moral judgments and deliberations are distinct from those of men.
• Gilligan further clarifies the difference between the two ethics. In her view, both the ethic of justice and the ethic of care focus on the quality and quantity of relationships. The ethic of justice emphasizes individual rights, equality before the law, and fair play, which can be pursued without personal connections to others. Justice is impersonal. On the other hand, the ethic of care emphasizes qualities like sensitivity towards others, loyalty, responsibility, self-sacrifice, and peace-making, all of which are rooted in interpersonal connections. Care is derived from these relationships.

Existentialist Ethics: Jean Paul Sartre

• Jean-Paul Sartre, a renowned philosopher and leading existentialist of the 20th century, is often regarded as the father of existentialist philosophy. Existentialism is a philosophical and cultural movement that argues the starting point for philosophical thought must be the individual and their personal experiences. Existentialists believe that traditional systematic or academic philosophies are too abstract and detached from real human experiences.
• A central idea in existentialism is that "existence precedes essence." This means that the most important consideration for an individual is not the labels, roles, stereotypes, or definitions that others impose upon them, but the fact that they are an independent, conscious, and responsible being ("existence"). The true essence of an individual is defined by the life they live and the actions they take, rather than any externally assigned or preconceived categories. Human beings, through their consciousness, create their own values and give meaning to their own lives.

The Ethics of Authenticity

• The 'ethics of authenticity' lies at the core of existentialism. It emphasizes the fundamental nature of the free commitment through which every individual realizes their true self while embodying a certain type of humanity. Sartre strongly asserts that "Freedom," "Choice," and "Self-Commitment" are the three essential pillars supporting the ethic of authenticity.
• This ethic is often understood as the process of "creating oneself" and then living in accordance with that self. Authenticity means that in one's actions, one should act as oneself, not in accordance with societal expectations, genetic predispositions, or any predetermined essence. The authentic act is one that aligns with one's freedom, reflecting the individual's true self.

Punishment and Its Ethical Justification

• "Punishment serves as just retribution for the intentional violation of moral law." By punishing the criminal, the wrongness of their act is made clear to them. Just as a good act deserves praise or reward, a bad act warrants punishment. This forms the ethical basis for punishment.
• Punishment is often seen as a form of negative reward given to the criminal. Without punishment, there would be no harm, equity, or uniformity in society. Moral laws would lose their value, resembling mere advice rather than essential guidelines. To maintain the authority, dignity, and supremacy of moral laws, a criminal must be punished, as their actions intentionally break these laws and disregard their authority.