Cultural Transitions: Images from Texts and Archaeology, c. 2000–600 BCE - 1 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Megalithic Burial, Hirebenakal (Karnataka)

Megalithic burial refers to the practice of burying the dead in large stone structures, which were common in certain regions of India, including Hirebenakal in Karnataka.

Historical Context:

• The practice of megalithic burial is believed to have been prevalent during the late prehistoric to early historic period in India.
• Hirebenakal, located in Karnataka, is one of the sites where such burials have been discovered, providing valuable insights into the burial customs and social practices of that time.

Burial Structures:

• Megalithic burials typically involved the use of large stone slabs or boulders to create a burial chamber.
• These structures were often covered with earth and marked with standing stones or cairns.
• The choice of stones and the construction techniques varied across regions, reflecting local traditions and available resources.

Findings at Hirebenakal:

• Archaeological excavations at Hirebenakal have uncovered several megalithic burial sites, revealing a range of burial types, including cists, urns, and dolmens.
• Grave goods such as pottery, iron tools, and ornaments found in these burials suggest that the deceased were individuals of some status, and the presence of these items indicates beliefs in an afterlife or the need for provisions in the next world.
• The variety of burial types and associated artifacts provides insight into the social hierarchy, cultural practices, and technological advancements of the people during that period.

Cultural Significance:

• Megalithic burials are not just markers of the dead; they also reflect the social organization, religious beliefs, and cultural practices of the communities.
• The construction of these burial sites required considerable labor and coordination, indicating a level of social organization and possibly the existence of a belief system that emphasized the importance of honoring the dead.
• Over time, as societies evolved, the methods and rituals associated with burials also changed, reflecting broader cultural shifts.

Conclusion:

• Megalithic burial sites like those found in Hirebenakal, Karnataka, offer a glimpse into the past, revealing how ancient communities dealt with death, the afterlife, and the social structures that governed their lives.
• These sites are crucial for understanding the transition from prehistoric to historic times in India and the development of complex societies.

Perspectives from Texts

Extracting historical information from the Vedas is challenging due to the texts' vastness and antiquity. There are no critical editions available to pinpoint the original core of the Vedic texts. 19th-century translations are unreliable, and there are few recent authoritative translations in European or Indian languages. The meaning of words and phrases varies significantly based on the text and context, making careful interpretation essential.

• The Vedic corpus was not meant for the general public; it reflects the ideas and practices of a specific social group, the Brahmanas, which refers to both a social group and a category of texts.
• These texts were primarily transmitted orally for centuries, with the earliest surviving manuscripts dating back to the 11th century CE.
• Historians typically date the composition of the earliest sections of the Rig Veda to around 1200–1000 BCE or 1500–1000 BCE, although some parts may date back to 2000 BCE. This uncertainty makes it challenging to use the Rig Veda as a historical source.
• Books 2–7 of the Rig Veda Samhita, known as the family books, are the oldest and attributed to specific seer-poet families such as Grit-samada, Vishvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, and Vasishtha.
• Books 1, 8, 9, and 10 appear to be from a later period.
• The hymns in the Rig Veda are organized by deity (such as Agni and Indra), number of stanzas, and metre. Each successive book contains more hymns.
• Within each deity group, hymns follow a specific pattern, with earlier hymns generally having more stanzas than later ones. If two hymns have the same number of stanzas, the one requiring more syllables is placed first.
• This arrangement helps identify interpolations, or hymns added later, which disrupt the pattern. However, this does not always align with their period of composition, as older hymns can be found in later books and vice versa.
• Differences in content or ideas between hymns may suggest a different origin or reflect ideas relevant to their time.
• The compilation of the Rig Veda likely occurred around 1000 BCE, possibly aiming to create an authoritative text for priestly rituals. Various recensions of the Rig Veda existed, differing in content, arrangement, and interpretation, with only the Shakala recension surviving to the present day.

Understanding the Geography and Context of Vedic Texts

• The Vedic texts offer valuable insights into the geography of their time.
• The family books of the Rig Veda were written in eastern Afghanistan and the Punjab region, known as Sapta-Sindhu, meaning "land of the seven rivers." This includes the Indus River, its five tributaries, and the Sarasvati River, which is likely the modern Ghaggar-Hakra River.
• Later Vedic texts are associated with the region of Kuru-Panchala, covering the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga Valley.
• Historians have different approaches to interpreting the Vedic texts:
• Nationalist historians have used the Vedas to create histories of the Indo-Aryans, often idealizing the Vedic period.
• Later scholars took a more objective approach, integrating Vedic data into long-term historical and anthropological models.
• Recent studies have focused on detailed textual analysis of the Vedic literature.
• When referring to the " Vedic age " or " Vedic culture, " it is crucial to consider factors such as:
• The challenge of dating the Rig Veda.
• The religious and elite nature of the texts.
• The specific geographical contexts of the texts.
• The availability of substantial archaeological evidence for the regions mentioned in the texts.

Who were the Indo-Aryans?

Aryan means "noble" in Sanskrit and is used in the Rig Veda with the meaning of "noble" or "cultivator." In this context, "Aryan" refers to a group of people who lived in ancient India and were known for their noble qualities or agricultural practices.

• Aryan means "noble" in Sanskrit. In the Rig Veda, it is used to describe a group of people in ancient India known for their noble qualities or agricultural practices.
• During the 19th and early 20th centuries, when many parts of Africa and Asia were colonized by European powers, scholars often viewed history in terms of the movement and interaction of different races. Some scholars used "race" to describe ethnic or cultural groups, while others classified people into distinct racial categories such as Caucasian, Mongoloid, and Negroid based on physical characteristics.
• Racial classifications were presented as scientific but were inherently racist, used to justify European subjugation of non-European peoples.
• The notion of a superior "Aryan" race, linked to Nazi propaganda, is a myth with no historical basis. Today, anthropologists reject racial classifications, favoring more accurate ways of understanding human cultures.
• The composers of the Rig Veda referred to themselves as "arya," meaning "kinsman" or "companion," possibly linked to cultivation. Linguists and historians use "Indo-European" and "Indo-Aryan" as linguistic terms, referring to families of languages and their speakers.
• The Indo-Aryans spoke a branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, part of the larger Indo-European family.
• The question of the Indo-Aryans' original homeland is debated among scholars. The dominant view is migration to the Indian subcontinent, while some Indian scholars argue for indigenous origins. Proposed homelands include Central Asia, Eastern Europe, and the Indian subcontinent, with a widely accepted theory placing their homeland in Eastern Europe, north of the Black Sea.
• The Vedas suggest a connection between the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians, but the reasons and timing of their separation are unclear. Historians reject the idea of an Aryan invasion of India, supporting the theory of multiple waves of Indo-Aryan migration.
• There is no agreement on the routes or timing of these migrations. Early Indo-Aryan languages in India, such as the non-Sanskritic or Dardic languages spoken in the northern mountains, may reflect an earlier wave of migration. Immigrants' military advantages, including superior technology and the use of horses and chariots, may have helped them establish political dominance in the region of the seven rivers.

The Culture Reflected in The Family Books of The Rig Veda Samhita

• Historians usually categorize Vedic literature into two main periods: early and later Vedic texts. However, recent research indicates that the timeline may be more complex.
• Early Vedic literature mainly refers to the family books of the Rig Veda Samhita. In contrast, later Vedic literature includes Books 1, 8, 9, and 10 of the Rig Veda Samhita, as well as the Samhitas of the Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas, along with the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads associated with all four Vedas.
• Within these later texts, the Mantra sections are considered the earliest, followed by the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. The cultural stages depicted in the early and later Vedic texts are referred to as early and later Vedic cultures. The principal Shrautasutras and some of the early Grihyasutras are estimated to date back to around 800–400 BCE.

Tribes and Wars in the Rig Veda

• The Rig Veda describes a time of conflict among various tribes, listing about 30 different groups. Among these, the Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu, and Druhyu are noted as the "five peoples." The Purus and Bharatas were initially allies but later became rivals. Key figures mentioned include Trasadasyu, a Puru chief, and Divodasa, a Bharata king who defeated the Dasa ruler Shambara.
• Many hymns in the Rig Veda call for victory in battle, but it's hard to tell mythological events from historical ones and real enemies from demons. The text often refers to conflicts with the Dasas and Dasyus, who might represent the indigenous people faced by the Indo-Aryans or earlier Indo-Aryan immigrants. Prayers to Indra for victory over both Dasa and Aryan enemies suggest internal Aryan conflicts as well.
• The Rig Veda contains around 300 non-Indo-European words, indicating interactions between the Vedic people and those speaking Dravidian and Munda languages. The text mentions tribes with non-Indo-European names like the Chumuri and Dhuni and Arya chieftains with non-Indo-Aryan names, highlighting cultural interactions.
• The "Battle of Ten Kings" in Book 7 may be based on a real event where Sudas, a Bharata chief, fought against a confederation of 10 tribes, including the Purus. The battle, fought near the Parushni (Ravi) river, ended in a Bharata victory, leading to Sudas's settlement near the Sarasvati River and his celebration of victory with an ashvamedha sacrifice.
• The term rajan (or raja) in the Rig Veda is better understood as "chieftain" or "noble," as a full monarchy had not yet developed. A rajan's role included protecting his people and leading them in battle, as well as safeguarding and expanding cattle herds.
• The royal priest played a crucial role in accompanying the rajan in battle, reciting prayers, and overseeing rituals. The importance of priests like Vasishtha and Vishvamitra is emphasized in many hymns. The term bali refers to offerings to deities and tributes paid to the rajan by clansmen, possibly derived from defeated tribes, though a formal taxation system was not yet in place.
• The Rig Veda mentions assemblies like the sabha and samiti, though their functions are not entirely clear. The sabha seems to be a smaller, elite gathering, while the samiti appears to be a larger assembly led by the rajan. These assemblies likely played a role in resource redistribution and promoting harmony among members. The vidatha is understood as a local congregation for socio-religious rituals and ceremonies for the well-being of the settlement.
• The family books of the Rig Veda contain terms for socio-political units based on kinship, such as jana, vish, gana, grama, griha, and kula. The jana is translated as tribe, vish as people or clan, and gana as lineage. Grama, which later meant village, likely referred to a mobile group of people, regardless of kinship.

Pastoralism, Agriculture, and Other Occupations

Cattle in Vedic Society

• Cattle held a central place in Vedic society, as evidenced by numerous references in the Rig Veda. Words like gavishti (battle for cattle) and gaveshana (search for cattle) indicate that many conflicts were essentially cattle raids.
• Terms such as gopa (tribal chief), gomat (wealthy cattle owner), and gopati (lord of cattle, an epithet for Indra) further emphasize the importance of cattle in various aspects of life.
• Cattle were linked to agriculture (e.g., kshetra meaning cultivated field), time (e.g., godhuli for dusk), and family structures (e.g., duhitri meaning "one who milks cows").

Agriculture in Vedic Society

• Although cattle rearing was crucial, agriculture was also significant in Vedic society. References to agricultural activities such as sowing ( vap ), cultivating ( krish ), and the use of tools like the plough ( phala, langala ), hoe ( khanitra ), sickle ( datra ), and axe ( parashu ) are found in the Rig Veda.
• The hymns express a desire for fertile fields and rich harvests, with Indra often invoked as the protector of crops. Conflicts over both cattle and land are mentioned, highlighting the significance of both livestock and farming.

Metallurgy in Vedic Society

• References to metallurgical activities in the Rig Veda are limited, and there is no conclusive evidence of ironworking. The term ayas, often translated as metal, appears in contexts such as Indra's thunderbolt and Dasyus' forts. Some scholars have speculated about the presence of iron tools or weapons, but these references are too ambiguous to confirm ironworking.

Gift Exchange and Social Structure

• Gift exchange was a vital aspect of Rig Vedic society, reflecting social bonds and hierarchies. Marcel Mauss’s concept of prestations helps explain the exchange system, where goods, services, and social acts were obligately exchanged to establish and maintain social relationships.
• Cattle were a key unit of value in these exchanges. Trade was minimal, and barter was the primary mode of exchange. Wealth was also accumulated through war booty, which was redistributed by the rajan (tribal leader). The absence of a formal currency system and private property rights as understood today suggests a communal approach to resources like land and cattle.

Social Inequalities

• Social inequalities were present in Rig Vedic society, notably between masters and slaves, and between men and women. Slavery was linked to war or debt, and enslaved people had limited rights, with women being particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation.
• Although socio-economic classes as understood today did not exist, inequalities regarding access to resources and political power were evident. The rajan held the highest status, while the dasi (slave) was at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

Food, Leisure, and Daily Life

• People consumed milk and milk products, ghee (clarified butter), grains, and fruits. Meat-eating, particularly in sacrificial contexts, is mentioned, although cows were considered sacred and not to be killed indiscriminately. The soma drink, made from the soma plant and mixed with milk or cereal, was significant in rituals, while sura, an intoxicating drink, was made from fermented grain.
• Clothing was made of cotton, wool, and animal skins. Leisure activities included singing, dancing, and playing musical instruments like the vina (lute) and vana (flute). Chariot racing and gambling were also popular pastimes.

Conclusion

• The Rig Veda depicts a society where cattle were central to the economy and social life, agriculture was important, gift exchange reinforced social hierarchies, and inequalities existed, particularly regarding slavery and gender roles.

Varna in the Rig Veda

In the Rig Veda, the term "varna" is used quite often, typically meaning "light" or "color." However, it is sometimes associated with the Aryas and Dasas, suggesting a connection between these groups. The Dasas and Dasyus are described with similar terms, highlighting their roles as adversaries in the Vedic texts.

The terms used to describe the Dasas and Dasyus include:

• a-vrata : Those who do not adhere to divine ordinances.
• a-kratu : Those who do not perform sacrifices.
• mridhra-vacha : This term can be interpreted in various ways, such as unclear, soft, hostile, or abusive speech. Interestingly, it is also used to describe the Purus, an Indo-Aryan tribe, indicating that it may not always mean "unintelligible."

In some instances, the Dasas are referred to as krishna-tvachor, which could mean "dark-skinned" or symbolically represent darkness. The term anas is also used for the Dasas, which might mean "noseless," "faceless," or "mouthless," suggesting incomprehensible speech, though its precise meaning is uncertain.

• The earlier perspective suggested that the Dasas and Dasyus were physically different from the fair-skinned Aryans, often depicted as dark-skinned, flat-nosed aboriginal peoples displaced by the Aryans. However, the diverse meanings of the epithets imply that physical differences may not have been the primary concern. Instead, the distinctions appear to be based on cultural differences, particularly in religious practices and possibly in language or dialect.
• Many scholars propose that the Dasas and Dasyus were not non-Aryan tribes but rather earlier Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived in India before the Vedic Aryans. There are links between the Dahae, an Iranian tribe, and the Dasas, as well as between the Dahyu tribe and the Dasyus. The Rig Veda also mentions conflicts not only between the Aryas and Dasas/Dasyus but also among Indo-Aryan tribes themselves, such as the battle between the Bharatas and Purus in the "battle of ten kings."
• The terms Brahmana and Kshatriya are commonly found in the family books of the Rig Veda, but the term varna is not associated with them. Brahmanas are portrayed as soma drinkers and hymn reciters, and while they appear to be a respected group, there is no evidence that their status was determined by birth. The terms Vaishya and Shudra are notably absent in these texts. The first clear mention of a four-fold varna system is in the Purusha-sukta, a hymn from Book 10 of the Rig Veda, indicating that the division of society into four varnas is a feature of later Vedic texts.
• The Rig Veda 3.44–45 hints at the absence of a rigid social hierarchy and the possibility of social mobility. In this passage, the poet prays to Indra, expressing a desire to be made a protector, a king, a sage, or a person of endless wealth. This implies that individuals in early Vedic society could aspire to various roles and goals in life, suggesting a degree of social flexibility.

Women, Men, and the Household

In the 19th century, socio-religious reformers and early 20th-century nationalist historians often depicted the Vedic period as a time when women were highly respected and had a strong presence in society. They pointed to various aspects such as the worship of goddesses, hymns composed by women in the Rig Veda, the presence of women sages, and their active involvement in rituals, chariot races, and social events as evidence of women's elevated status during this period.

• This portrayal was a response to the colonial oppression of the time, aiming to highlight the better treatment of women in ancient India compared to the West. It also sought to advocate for improvements in women's conditions in contemporary Indian society.
• Recent scholarship has shifted its focus from discussing women in isolation to analyzing gender relations, which refer to the socially constructed roles assigned to men and women. Earlier historians primarily concentrated on the public and political spheres, neglecting the significance of family, household, and gender relations.
• Today, scholars recognize that the division between public and private domains is not as clear-cut as previously thought. Power dynamics and hierarchies based on gender, age, and kinship also operate within the household. There is a close interconnection between family relations, marriage, kinship, control over women's sexuality and reproduction, class, caste, and broader political structures. These elements form a complex social structure, making gender relations a crucial aspect of social history.
• The experiences of women varied significantly depending on their social groups. It is essential to consider the diversity within the category of 'women' based on factors such as rank, class, occupation, and age. Women's roles should be understood in relation to men and the broader social, economic, and political contexts.
• Historians now ask more specific questions about gender relations, such as the dynamics between men and women in the domestic sphere, inheritance norms, women's roles in production, control over their sexuality, involvement in religion and rituals, access to education, and political power. While women faced subordination, they were not passive victims; they actively participated in various social roles and were agents of history, although much of their history remains unrecorded.
• Earlier discussions about women in the Vedic age often focused on elite women, overlooking those from lower social strata. The Rig Veda's mentions of goddesses, while present, did not imply that real women held power or privilege. The number of hymns attributed to women in the Rig Veda is minimal, and instances of women sages are few, suggesting limited access to sacred knowledge for women.
• Women did not serve as priests in the Rig Veda; instead, they participated in rituals as wives of male priests. They did not perform sacrifices on their own or receive donations. The Vedic household was primarily patriarchal and patrilineal, with women having little control over material resources. Societal norms regulated their sexuality and reproductive capabilities.
• Vedic literature uses various terms for household units, indicating different types of households. In this patriarchal society, the Rig Veda places greater emphasis on the importance of sons over daughters, with the absence of sons viewed negatively. The Veda also highlights the institution of marriage, describing different types of marriages, including monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry.
• It mentions post-puberty marriages and depicts women as having some agency in choosing their husbands. In cases where a woman's husband died or disappeared, she could remarry. The Rig Veda also references unmarried women, such as the seer Ghosha, and includes mentions of elopement, where a man prays for the woman's family and household to fall asleep, allowing them to escape together.
• Male dominance and the subordination of women are features observed in all known historical societies. The variation lies in the degree of dominance and subordination and the structures in which these were embedded.
• Compared to later Vedic literature, the family books of the Rig Veda Samhita reflect a time when social status was not as rigidly defined or polarized. However, it was not a society of equals, as rank and gender were the primary bases of inequality.

Religion: Sacrifices to the Gods

The Rig Veda provides insight into the religious practices and beliefs of an aristocratic society, sharing similarities with the Iranian Avesta. It depicts a range of religious traditions, with some groups not worshipping Indra and the Dasas and Dasyus being described as those who did not honor the Vedic gods or perform sacrifices.

• The universe in the Vedic hymns is portrayed as consisting of three realms: the sky (dyu), the earth (prithvi), and the middle realm (antariksha). The gods, referred to as deva (meaning "shining" or "luminous"), are sometimes called asuras. While asura originally meant a powerful being, it later came to signify a demon. The Rig Veda mentions 33 gods associated with these realms, but the actual number of deities is much larger, and there is no fixed hierarchy. This concept is known as Henotheism or Kathenotheism.
• The text also references celestial beings like gandharvas (spirits), apsaras (celestial nymphs), and malevolent entities such as rakshasas (demons), yatudhanas (sorcerers), and pishachas (spirits of the dead). Creation myths involving cosmic battles, the separation of heaven and earth, or the actions of the gods are briefly mentioned.
• Worship of the gods involved prayer and sacrifices (yajnas), which marked the transition from the mundane to the sacred and allowed the gods to intervene in the human world. Sacrifices were performed in the home of the yajamana (the person for whom the sacrifice was made) or on a designated plot of land. Offerings such as milk, ghee, and grain were offered into the fire along with recited sacrificial prayers, and some yajnas included animal sacrifices. The gods were believed to consume the offerings through the fire, with a portion eaten by the officiating priests. The goals of these sacrifices included securing wealth, health, sons, and long life for the yajamana.
• Sacrifices varied in complexity, from simple domestic ceremonies to elaborate ones requiring ritual specialists. The Rig Veda mentions seven types of priests, each with specific responsibilities, and priests were compensated with a fee (dakshina) for their services. Temples and the worship of deity images, which became important in later Hinduism, are not mentioned in the Rig Veda.
• The Rig Veda reflects a form of naturalistic polytheism, where many gods represent natural forces, as seen in deities like Agni (Fire), Surya (Sun), and Ushas (Dawn). However, the mythology surrounding some gods, like Indra, extends beyond their natural associations. The gods are anthropomorphic, described with physical traits such as heads, faces, mouths, hair, hands, feet, clothes, and weapons, with some overlap in their attributes and deeds.
• Indra, the most frequently mentioned god in the Rig Veda, is depicted as a strong warrior with a thunderbolt who aids the Aryas in battle. He is associated with drinking soma and is often referred to as maghavan, meaning bounteous. Indra's parents include Tvashtri, his father, and his consort is Indrani, with the Maruts as his companions. He is known for defeating hostile forces and demons, such as Vala, Arbuda, and Vishvarupa.
• One of Indra's most famous myths is the defeat of the serpent demon Vritra, where Indra, strengthened by soma and accompanied by the Maruts, uses his thunderbolt to kill Vritra and release the waters the demon had held captive. Indra is often called Vritrahan, the slayer of Vritra, and many scholars interpret this myth as a symbol of creation, with Vritra representing chaos.