Definitional problems | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Concept of Tribe

• Recognition of Scheduled Tribes: The Indian Constitution recognizes a category of people known as Scheduled Tribes (STs) and has special provisions for their political representation and socio-economic welfare. These provisions were formulated based on the historical discrimination faced by these communities.
• Evolutionary Perspective: The concept of tribes has been examined from an evolutionary perspective, particularly by anthropologists like Lewis Morgan. The tribe has been viewed as both a type of social organization and a stage in social evolution.
• Segmentary Structure: Anthropologist Marshall Sahlins proposed that a segmentary structure is a defining feature of tribal societies. This concept was further explored by British social anthropologists working in Africa, emphasizing the differences between centralized and segmentary societies.
• Variety within Tribes: Tribes in India encompass various modes of tribal organization, ranging from bands of hunters and gatherers to chiefdoms. The Scheduled Tribes of India are a diverse group with differing social structures.
• Integration and Autonomy: Tribal societies in India face challenges in terms of integration and autonomy. There is a need to distinguish among various tribal organizational modes and draw clear lines between tribal and non-tribal societies. The distinction between tribes and castes can be complex, especially in areas where the two meet.
• Transformation of Tribes into Castes: The transformation of tribes into castes has been documented by anthropologists and historians. While tribes and castes have distinct modes of organization, at the margins where they meet, distinguishing between the two can be challenging.
• Isolation of Tribal Communities: Tribal communities in India have historically been isolated, primarily in interior hills and forests, as well as frontier areas. This isolation has allowed them to retain their distinctive languages and cultures to varying degrees.
• Language as an Indicator: Language serves as a key indicator distinguishing tribes from castes. Tribes often have their own distinctive dialects, which can differ significantly from the regional languages. However, exceptions exist, with some tribes adopting the language of their region.

Tribal society: Definitional problem

• Population Percentage: Tribes in India constitute approximately 8% of the total population. This indicates that they are a significant minority in the country.
• Diverse Identities: India recognizes 636 tribal groups, highlighting the immense diversity among these communities in terms of racial, linguistic, and cultural identities. Each tribe has its unique characteristics and heritage.
• Definition by D.N. Majumdar: D.N. Majumdar defines a tribe as a social group with specific characteristics:
  • Territorial Affiliation: Tribes often have a defined geographic area where they reside.
  • Endogamous: Marriages typically occur within the tribe, promoting social cohesion.
  • No Specialization of Functions: Tribal members usually share various responsibilities rather than having specialized roles.
  • Tribal Officers: These may be hereditary or otherwise appointed leaders who govern the tribe.
  • Common Language or Dialect: A shared language or dialect is a unifying factor.
  • Social Distance: Tribes often maintain social distinctions from other tribes or castes.
• Definition by Ralph Linton: Ralph Linton describes a tribe as a group of bands (smaller social units) occupying contiguous territories. Key features include:
  • Feeling of Unity: Tribes have a sense of unity, which arises from cultural similarities, frequent interactions, and shared interests.
  • Cultural Similarities: Tribes often share cultural practices and traditions.
  • Frequent Contacts: Members of the tribe interact regularly with each other.
  • Community of Interests: Tribes have common goals and objectives.
• Definition by LM Lewis: LM Lewis characterizes tribal societies as small in scale, with limitations in their social, legal, and political relations. Other characteristics include:
  • Limited Spatial and Temporal Range: Tribal societies have narrow spatial and temporal scopes for their interactions and relationships.
  • Unwritten Languages: Tribal languages are often unwritten, limiting communication beyond the tribe.
  • Economy of Design: Tribal societies are known for their efficient and self-sufficient structures, lacking the complexity of modern societies

Features of Tribes in Indian Context

• Minimal Functional Interdependence: Tribes are often characterized by limited functional interdependence within their community.

• Economic Backwardness: Tribal economies are typically at an underdeveloped stage, often relying on primitive methods for exploiting natural resources. They engage in multifarious economic pursuits.
• Geographical Isolation: Many tribal communities are geographically isolated, residing in remote areas such as hills and forests.
• Common Dialect: Tribes often share a common dialect or language.
• Political Organization: Tribes have political organization, with influential community panchayats.
• Customary Laws: Tribal societies often have their own customary laws.
• Acculturation and Tribal Identity:  Very high level of acculturation with outside society can disqualify a community from being considered a tribe. In this context, the term "tribe" denotes a social group bound together by kinship and duty, associated with a particular territory.
• Historical Perspective: During the colonial period, the concept of a tribe was introduced by the administration to understand various cultural communities in India. Scholars studied tribes like Gonds, Oraons, Nagas, Andaman Islanders, Todas, and Baigas, emphasizing their distinctive cultures, religions, modes of production, and ways of life.
• Transformation and Continuum: Anthropological studies suggested that tribes should be studied along a continuum, considering their proximity to caste communities. This perspective acknowledges the transformation of tribal economies into peasant economies as a significant factor. It also considers the role of culture and economics in distinguishing tribes from castes.
• Diverse Influences on Tribes:  the diverse influences on tribes in India, can make it challenging to draw clear lines of demarcation between tribal and non-tribal societies. The role of language is noted as a key indicator of tribal identity.
• Ethnic Group Perspective: Some scholars suggest that tribes should be understood as ethnic groups. They emphasize the importance of common consciousness in bringing different tribes together, despite differences in language, occupation, and culture.
• Developmental Perspective: The founding fathers of the Indian Constitution were more concerned with the developmental issues of tribes rather than their specific definitions. They aimed to improve the livelihoods, equality, and overall well-being of tribal communities through various policies and protections.
• Jawaharlal Nehru's Tribal Development Approach: Nehru's approach focused on tribal development and their integration into the larger economy and political life. He emphasized the need for training tribes to participate in mainstream activities and ensuring that development projects align with local communities' needs.
• Tribal Identification: The passage concludes by suggesting that who identifies as a tribe is a matter of self-identification rather than strict academic categorization. The Constitution of India provided protections and policies for tribal communities based on their needs and identities.

Characteristics of Tribal Society

• Definite and Common Topography: Tribes typically inhabit specific and common geographical areas or territories. Their lifestyles and cultures are often closely tied to their natural surroundings.
• Consciousness of Mutual Unity: Members of a tribe share a sense of unity and belonging within their community. This sense of tribal identity often transcends individual differences.
• Common Language: Tribes generally speak a common language or dialect. Language plays a crucial role in communication and preserving cultural heritage.
• Marriage Patterns: Traditionally, tribal communities tend to practice endogamy, where members marry within their own group. However, increased contact with outsiders has led to instances of inter-tribal marriages as well.
• Blood Relationships: Tribes believe in the importance of blood relationships among their members. They often trace their ancestry back to a common ancestor, whether real or mythical, reinforcing a sense of kinship.
• Political Organization: Tribal communities have their own unique political organizations that help maintain harmony within the tribe. These political structures often have religious significance and recognition.
• Religious Significance: Religion holds great importance in tribal life. It often serves as a central organizing principle for social, political, and cultural aspects of tribal societies. Tribal practices and rituals are often intertwined with their religious beliefs.
• Kinship as a Fundamental Principle: Kinship is a fundamental principle in tribal societies, serving as a basis for social organization, inheritance, division of labor, and the distribution of power and privileges. It plays a crucial role in the overall functioning of tribal communities.
• Small Size: Many tribal communities are relatively small in size, which contributes to their close-knit social structures. However, some tribes, like the Santhals, Gonds, and Bhills, can be quite large, indicating diversity among tribal groups.

Characteristics of Indian tribes by Mandelbaum

• Kinship as an Instrument of Social Bonds: Kinship plays a crucial role in tribal societies, serving as a foundation for social bonds and relationships among tribal members.
• Lack of Hierarchy: Tribal societies often lack hierarchical structures among individuals and groups. There is typically a sense of equality among community members.
• Absence of Strong, Complex, Formal Organization: Tribal communities tend to have relatively simple and informal social and political organizations. They may lack centralized authority in the traditional sense.
• Communitarian Basis of Land Holding: Land ownership and land-related practices in tribal societies often have a communitarian basis, with the community collectively managing and utilizing land resources.
• Segmentary Character: Segmentary systems are common in tribal societies. These systems involve small-scale social units with a degree of autonomy and independence from one another, particularly within a specific region.
• Little Value on Surplus Accumulation: Tribal economies typically prioritize subsistence and immediate needs over the accumulation of surplus wealth or capital. Market trading is often minimal.
• Lack of Distinction Between Form and Substance of Religion: In tribal societies, there may not be a clear distinction between the form and substance of religion. Religious practices and beliefs are deeply integrated into daily life.
• Distinct Psychological Bent for Enjoying Life: Tribal communities often have a distinct psychological orientation towards enjoying life. Their cultural practices, festivals, and rituals reflect this aspect of their worldview.

Here he also emphasizes that the distinctions between tribal, folk, peasant, and urban societies may not always be useful in understanding tribes in India. It highlights the complex interactions and adaptations that tribal communities have undergone due to historical, economic, and cultural factors.

Additionally, it mentions the role of kinship, landholding, and cultural beliefs, such as animism and ancestor worship, in tribal societies. These cultural aspects shape the social fabric and identity of tribal communities in India.

Some general defining features of tribes in India are

• Common Name: Each tribe has a distinct name that sets it apart from other tribes.
• Common Territory: Tribes typically occupy specific geographical areas that they consider their own.
• Common Language: Members of a tribe usually speak the same language or dialect, and each tribe may have its unique language.
• Common Culture: Tribes have their own cultural practices, including prescribed behavior patterns, festivals, and deities they worship.
• Endogamy: Tribal communities often practice endogamy, where marriage is restricted to members within their own tribe.
• Political Organization: Tribes typically have their political organization, often governed by councils of elders who oversee tribal affairs.

Demographic and economic information about Indian tribes:

• Approximately 8 percent of India's total population consists of tribal communities, totaling more than thirty million people.
• The majority of tribal workers (91 percent) are engaged in agriculture, reflecting their strong connection to the land.
• A smaller percentage of tribal workers are involved in manufacturing (3 percent) and services (5 percent).
• A small percentage (1 percent) is engaged in forestry and food-gathering activities.

It is important to note that despite these common characteristics, there is significant diversity among tribal communities in terms of habitation, ecology, language, religion, and their interactions with the outside world. Additionally,some tribal communities may not have a clear perception of their own circumstances or may have a distorted or incomplete understanding of their own identity and conditions.