Dimensions - Social Stratification of Ethnicity and Race | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

What is Ethnicity?

Ethnicity refers to a group of people who identify with each other based on a shared heritage, which may include common language, culture, religion, and/or ancestry. The concept of ethnicity is considered to be socially constructed, meaning that it is based on subjective beliefs and negotiations rather than solely on inherited traits or biological factors.

• Current sociological discussions focus more on how members of different ethnic groups and nations represent themselves in response to politicized debates around multiculturalism and post-colonialism. This is particularly relevant in countries with large immigrant populations, such as the United States and Canada, as well as post-colonial regions like South Asia.
• Theorists like Max Weber and Fredrik Barth have emphasized the constructed nature of ethnicity, suggesting that it is not a fixed or inherent characteristic, but rather a fluid and negotiable identity. Ethnic groups are not isolated cultural entities, but rather interconnected identities that are constantly shaped and reshaped through interactions with others.
• Social scientists have also pointed out that the categorization of ethnic groups can often be arbitrary and may not necessarily align with the self-identification of the group members. As a result, researchers have focused on understanding how, when, and why different markers of ethnic identity become important in various contexts.

In summary, ethnicity is a complex and fluid concept that involves shared cultural, linguistic, religious, and ancestral characteristics. It is socially constructed and constantly negotiated, with its boundaries and markers influenced by political and social factors.

Approaches to Understanding Ethnicity
Different approaches to understanding ethnicity have been employed by social scientists in an attempt to comprehend the role of ethnicity as a factor in human life and society. Some of these approaches include primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism, and instrumentalism. Primordialism posits that ethnicity has always existed throughout human history and that modern ethnic groups possess historical continuity extending far into the past.

• Essentialist primordialism takes this further, asserting that ethnicity is an a priori fact of human existence and remains fundamentally unchanged by social interaction. Kinship primordialism, on the other hand, contends that ethnic communities are extensions of kinship units, with cultural signs such as language, religion, and traditions chosen to demonstrate biological affinity. Geertz's primordialism, as proposed by anthropologist Clifford Geertz, argues that humans attribute significant power to primordial human "givens" like blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences, leading to the perception of ethnicity as primordial.
• Perennialism maintains that ethnicity is ever-changing and that while the concept has existed at all times, ethnic groups are generally short-lived before their boundaries realign in new configurations. Perpetual perennialism posits that specific ethnic groups have existed continuously throughout history, while situational perennialism argues that nations and ethnic groups emerge, change, and vanish over time. The latter view sees ethnicity as a tool used by political groups to manipulate resources, such as wealth, power, territory, or status, in the interest of their particular groups. Instrumentalist perennialism, meanwhile, views ethnicity as a mechanism of social stratification, serving as the basis for the hierarchical arrangement of individuals.
• According to sociologist Donald Noel, ethnic stratification emerges when specific ethnic groups are brought into contact with one another and are characterized by high degrees of ethnocentrism, competition, and differential power. Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to view the world primarily from one's own cultural perspective and to downgrade other groups outside of one's own culture. Some sociologists, such as Lawrence Bobo and Vincent Hutchings, attribute the origin of ethnic stratification to individual dispositions of ethnic prejudice, which relates to the theory of ethnocentrism. Differential power, competition structured along ethnic lines, and self-interest-driven hostility are also considered prerequisites for the emergence of ethnic stratification.
• Constructivism, on the other hand, views both primordialist and perennialist perspectives as fundamentally flawed and rejects the notion of ethnicity as a basic human condition. Instead, it asserts that ethnic groups are products of human social interaction, maintained only insofar as they are validated as social constructs within societies. Modernist constructivism associates the emergence of ethnicity with the movement towards nation-states in the early modern period. Proponents of this theory, such as Eric Hobsbawm, argue that ethnicity and notions of ethnic pride, like nationalism, are modern inventions that have only appeared in the modern period of world history. They maintain that prior to this, ethnic homogeneity was not considered an ideal or necessary factor in the formation of large-scale societies.

Ethnicity and Race

Ethnicity and race are two related yet distinct concepts that are often used to categorize people based on their biological and cultural traits. While race primarily focuses on biological criteria, ethnicity encompasses a broader range of cultural factors. Members of an ethnic group typically identify with their group and are recognized by others for their distinctive cultural traits. On the other hand, race is often associated with physical characteristics such as skin color, hair type, and other genetic traits that are believed to be inherited.

• In the past, race and ethnicity were often considered as two aspects of the same thing, with cultural differences between populations being attributed to inherited traits and tendencies. This was a time when pseudosciences like phrenology claimed to correlate cultural and behavioral traits with physical characteristics such as skull shape. However, with the introduction of the idea of ethnicity as a social construct by Max Weber, race and ethnicity started to be seen as separate entities. Despite this, a social belief in biologically well-defined races persisted.
• In 1950, the UNESCO statement "The Race Question" challenged this belief by stating that national, religious, geographic, linguistic, and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups, and that cultural traits have no proven genetic connection with racial traits. The statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars of the time, suggested that the term 'race' be replaced with 'ethnic groups' to avoid confusion and errors in popular usage.
• Anthropologist David Craig Griffith, in 1982, highlighted the role of racial and ethnic categories in the global economy, arguing that these distinctions serve to allocate different categories of workers in labor markets, relegating stigmatized populations to lower levels and protecting higher echelons from competition. According to Griffith, capitalism played a significant role in creating the distinctions between ethnicity and race, with races being constructed during the period of European mercantile expansion, and ethnic groups during the period of capitalist expansion.
• Ethnicity often implies shared cultural, linguistic, behavioral, or religious traits, making it a more comprehensive category than race. For example, identifying oneself as Jewish or Arab invokes a range of linguistic, religious, cultural, and racial features that are considered common within each ethnic category. This distinction between race and ethnicity is crucial in understanding the complexities of human diversity and social dynamics, especially when considering the historical and contemporary implications of these concepts.

Ethnicity in Specific Regions

• In the United States, the concept of "ethnicity" differs from its usage in other countries due to the historical and ongoing significance of racial distinctions. The US has long grouped various ethnic, national, or linguistic groups from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands, Latin America, and Indigenous America into racial minority groups, such as African American, Asian, Latino, and Native American or American Indian. Ethnic identity may coexist with racial identity, but the country's history as a settler, conqueror, and slave society has made race a fundamental aspect of social identification in the US.
• Ethnicity theory in the US initially arose in response to biological views of race, which supported extreme forms of racial social stratification, exclusion, and subordination. In the 1960s, ethnicity theory was used in debates among academics and policymakers regarding how to address the demands and resistant political identities resulting from civil rights mobilizations and transformation. Ethnicity theory came to be associated with a liberal and neoconservative rejection or diminution of race as a fundamental feature of US social order, politics, and culture. However, critics argue that ethnicity theory fails to effectively address the meaning and material significance of race in the US.
• The terms "Black" and "African American" are both used as ethnic categories in the US, with "African American" being posited as a more appropriate and politically correct race designation in the late 1980s. The term "White" generally describes people with ancestry traceable to Europe, the Middle East, and European-colonized countries in the Americas, Australasia, and South Africa, among others.
• Europe has a large number of ethnic groups, with 87 distinct "peoples of Europe" identified, 33 of which form the majority population in at least one sovereign state. Russia has numerous recognized ethnic groups besides the 80% ethnic Russian majority, with the largest group being the Tatars (3.8%). China officially recognizes 56 ethnic groups, the largest of which is the Han Chinese, who predominate demographically and politically in most areas of China, although less so in the annexed provinces of Tibet and Xinjiang (East Turkestan), where the Han are in the minority.

Race as a Form of Stratification

The Concept of Race
The concept of race has various meanings and has been used synonymously with nationality, language, and even cultural groups. However, the most authentic definition of race is physiological, which refers to a collection of individuals sharing certain observable physiological traits that are transmitted through biological inheritance. Common traits used for racial classification include skin color, head shape, stature, eye color, lip form, prognathism, and hair form. While some anthropologists regard color as the proper basis for classification, others prefer hair form or other traits. It is important to remember that race classifications have evolved over time, with older classifications being replaced by newer ones based on more recent discoveries.

• Racial traits are now widely mixed among various groups of mankind, which raises the question of whether there was a time when pure types existed from which the present mixed races originated. However, this assumption is not supported by scientific data. Studies on fossil human remains reveal that even in prehistory, at the very dawn of humanity, mixing of different stocks took place occasionally. Mankind has always been, and still is, a mongrel lot. The idea of pure original races is further complicated by the belief that mankind most likely derived from one original stock.
• As a physiological or biological concept, race can be summarized as follows: There are real physiological traits by which humans differ from each other, and some of these traits are predominant in certain groups, particularly among primitive populations. These traits are transmitted by biological inheritance, and the groups of people characterized by these traits are referred to as races. However, the concept of race is an abstraction, and there is significant overlapping of traits among various groups and individual differences within the same group.
• If race were widely recognized as nothing more than a physiological concept, it would lose its importance as a social phenomenon. However, the widespread belief that race is correlated with intelligence, culture, and other qualities, dividing races into superior and inferior, has given it significant social importance. This belief has led to the discouragement of miscegenation, or the union between superior and inferior races, as it is believed to bring down the superior race.
• Racialist authors, such as Madison Grant, Count A. J. de Gobineau, and H. S. Chamberlain, have propagated the idea of the superiority of one race over another, often with a lack of critical sense. This view has flattered certain groups who believe they belong to the so-called "Nordic race" or a section of the elect. However, it is essential to examine the differences between various groups of people and determine whether these differences are of kind or degree, and what significance they hold in social life. By doing so, we can better understand the concept of race and its implications in a more nuanced and informed manner.

Differences Between Man and Beast

The question of whether the differences between man and beast are of kind or not has been debated for centuries. To determine this, we cannot solely rely on physiological criteria, as it is too complex for non-specialists to understand. Instead, we can focus on language and culture, which includes art, systems of thought, religion, and morality. These factors are all expressions of intelligence, so if we can determine that only humans are capable of intelligence, then we can also say that the difference between man and beast is of kind or specific.

• Intelligence can be defined as the power to know one's own experience and deduce relations, particularly correlates, as expressed in conceptual language and culture. This means that when a person has the ability to perceive logical relations between things, they can integrate various orders of things through new mental syntheses. This power of integration allows language and culture to develop.
• It is clear that humans possess this gift of intelligence, as it is evident in our accomplishments and progress. However, the question remains whether animals also possess intelligence or if it is unique to humans.
• Darwin, in his work "The Descent of Man" (1871), argued that there is no fundamental difference between man and higher mammals in their mental faculties. This view was supported by various experiments on animals, which seemed to show that they possessed a certain level of intelligence. However, these experiments often focused on external performance rather than the underlying psychological operations.
• While animals, especially higher animals, do show a certain level of adaptability and plasticity in their behavior, this does not necessarily mean they possess intelligence in the same sense as humans. The way animals perform complex tasks is often more mechanical and stereotyped, whereas human actions are driven by anticipation and thought.
• A major argument against animal intelligence is that animals never develop anything close to human language, culture, or systems of thought. Some Darwinists have tried to argue that the difference in mental development between a low-type savage and a civilized person is greater than the difference between that savage and an anthropoid ape. However, if a young savage child was raised in an educated environment, they would likely develop the same level of intelligence and language ability as any other child from that culture.
• In contrast, if a young chimpanzee was raised in the same environment, they would not develop the same level of intelligence or language ability. This is because animals lack the essential tool for crossing the barrier between them and human intelligence – the ability to reason.
• Modern researchers on animal psychology, such as Dr. D. Katz, have confirmed this conclusion. While animals may possess some degree of intelligence in terms of adaptability and plasticity of behavior, they do not have the ability to reason as humans do. As a result, animals are unable to develop culture and remain stagnant over thousands of years.

The Unity of Mankind

The question of whether the differences between various types of men are of kind or merely of degree holds significant importance in understanding human society and its evolution. This issue is linked to the practical implications of how we view and treat different groups of people. For instance, if we believe in the existence of a superior race, it may lead to the logical conclusion that the inferior race is meant to serve the superior, just as animals serve humans. This could potentially lead to the revalidation of the ancient principle of slavery by nature, which is not in line with modern values and beliefs.

• The differences between primitive and modern men have been a subject of debate among scholars, with some emphasizing the undesirable traits of primitive men to a great extent. However, it has been observed that many preliterate societies exhibit kindness, ingenuity, law-abidingness, artistic genius, and inventiveness, despite having limited resources. This indicates that the differences between these groups are primarily due to cultural factors and social traditions rather than inherent or racial differences. Given the right conditions, individuals from these societies can overcome their disadvantages and excel in various domains, as demonstrated by numerous examples of individuals from backward tribes achieving success in modern life.
• The perception and realization of truth, goodness, and beauty, which form the roots of culture and are natural manifestations of human intelligence, are not exclusive to a few chosen groups but are the birthright of all mankind, including primitive societies. Preliterate and prescientific people have been found to be capable of clear definition and logic, as well as inventiveness, insight, originality, and creativity. This is evident in their complex languages, rich kinship systems, and appreciation for art and beauty, which can be seen in various forms of artistic expression found in their cultures.
• Anthropologists have come to recognize that there is no intrinsic difference in mind or any other fundamental human trait between preliterate man and his more civilized counterpart. As A. M. Tozzer states, "The savage is a rational being, morally sound and in any respect worthy of a place in the Universal Brotherhood of Man." This unity of mankind has also been supported by scientific and biological evidence, with experts recognizing that all men belong to the same species of Homo Sapiens and are likely derived from the same common stock.

The fact that all types of blood groups can be found in every race, that the germ cells of every human being contain the same number of chromosomes, and that various races can interbreed without any negative consequences, further supports the idea that the different races and cultures are branches of the same human tree. Egon von Eickstedt, a German biologist, strongly supports this notion, stating that a monophyletic descent of man is more appropriate for understanding the complex and interlocking phases of humanization than a polyphyletic one.

Mental Differences Between Human Groups

The third question we are addressing is whether there are mental differences between human groups, such that we can classify some races as superior or inferior to others. This question is distinct from the previous one, which focused on the unity of mankind.

• Although all humans belong to the same species, we are asking whether certain groups might be mentally or intrinsically inferior to others due to hereditary factors resulting from geographical isolation, cultural influences, or environmental conditions. It is undeniable that there are mental differences between groups, but the key issue is whether these differences are innate or due to transient environmental, historical, or cultural factors.
• Past studies have attempted to link mental differences to factors such as cranial capacity, brain weight, and brain structure. However, the results have been inconclusive and often contradictory, making it difficult to draw any conclusions about racial superiority or inferiority.
• Intelligence tests conducted during World War I and by researchers such as Binet, Terman, and Goodenough have also been used to study mental differences between races. These tests have shown that some groups, such as African Americans and American Indians, scored lower than white Americans. However, these tests have been heavily criticized for their potential bias and the influence of environmental factors on the results.
• One example of this is that African Americans from northern states in the U.S. scored higher than white Americans from some southern states, suggesting that environmental factors play a significant role in these differences. Additionally, studies have shown that children from urban areas generally score higher than those from rural areas, regardless of their racial background.
• Attempts to prove racial superiority through the history of civilization have also been unsuccessful. In fact, a study by historian Arnold Toynbee showed that various races have contributed to different numbers of civilizations throughout history, with no clear pattern of superiority or inferiority.

While it is theoretically possible that a racial group may be mentally inferior due to biological factors, this hypothesis is not supported by any reliable evidence. Furthermore, even if it were true, it would not justify racialist claims, as intelligence does not always correlate with moral and social superiority, and all members of the human family have a role to play in society.

The focus should be on promoting peacefulness, cooperation, and understanding among all human groups, rather than perpetuating divisive notions of racial superiority and inferiority.

Race Prejudice: Understanding its Causes and Remedies

Race prejudice has been a significant issue in different societies throughout history. Although the concept of race may be valid from a physiological point of view, as a human and sociological concept, it holds little value. This article aims to explore the various causes of race prejudice and suggest possible remedies to address this issue.

Causes of Race Prejudice

• Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism refers to the exaggerated esteem that people have for themselves, causing them to despise foreigners or feel superior to them. It is not race prejudice in itself, but it may lead to race prejudice if cultural differences and the presumed inferiority of the 'out-group' are associated with physiological traits.
•  Economic Advantages: Race prejudice may result from the economic advantages that may accrue to the dominant group. When a section of the community is considered inferior, the dominant group may take advantage of the cheap labor provided by the subordinate group, perpetuating the existing inequalities.
• Political Advantages: Racial prejudices are often fostered by the dominant group to maintain or strengthen their political supremacy. Discriminated groups may be deprived of or face disadvantages in exercising their voting rights or holding office, while the dominant group consolidates power.
• Compensation for Frustration: Sometimes, a racial group may be used as a scapegoat by the dominant group to vent their social or individual frustrations. For example, in Nazi Germany, the Jews were blamed for Germany's defeat in World War I and the failure to establish a stable political system later.
• Ignorance: Ignorance is a significant source of race prejudice, often due to a lack of contact with other racial groups, psychological barriers, or unfavorable stereotypes. Stereotypes exaggerate certain physical traits or cultural characteristics and attribute them to all members of a group, resulting in unfounded prejudice.
• Pseudo-science: Pseudo-scientific theories may be used to justify race prejudice. For instance, the theory of the gradual evolution of man has been interpreted as justifying the 'superiority' of those races considered more advanced in the scale of evolution.

Remedies for Race Prejudice

• Education and Exposure: Educating people about the realities of race and promoting exposure to different racial groups can help break down prejudices. Greater communication and interaction can contribute to dismantling race barriers.
• Economic and Political Inclusivity: Promoting inclusivity in economic opportunities and political participation can help address race prejudice. Ensuring equal access to resources and decision-making can contribute to reducing discrimination.
• Addressing Frustrations and Stereotypes: Efforts should be made to address the social and individual frustrations that lead to scapegoating and fostering negative stereotypes. This may involve promoting understanding, empathy, and cooperation among different racial groups.
• Debunking Pseudo-scientific Theories: Challenging and debunking pseudo-scientific theories that promote race prejudice is crucial. Spreading accurate scientific knowledge can help counteract false beliefs about race.
• Learning from Successful Examples: Nations in which race prejudice is absent or minimal can serve as examples for other societies to follow. The peaceful coexistence of various races in Central and South America, the Caribbean Islands, and other regions demonstrates that race prejudice can be solved.

Conclusion

Ethnicity and race are complex, interconnected concepts that play a significant role in human society and social interactions. While race is primarily based on biological factors, ethnicity encompasses broader cultural, linguistic, and religious aspects. The understanding of these concepts has evolved over time, and it is crucial to recognize their fluid and socially constructed nature. Addressing race prejudice and promoting inclusivity, education, and exposure to different racial and ethnic groups are essential steps towards fostering a more harmonious and equitable society for all.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Ethnicity and Race as Systems of Stratification

What is the difference between race and ethnicity?

Race primarily focuses on biological criteria, such as physical characteristics like skin color, hair type, and other genetic traits that are believed to be inherited. Ethnicity, on the other hand, encompasses a broader range of cultural factors, including common language, culture, religion, and ancestry. Ethnicity is considered to be socially constructed, while race is often associated with inherited physical traits.

What are some approaches to understanding ethnicity?

Some approaches to understanding ethnicity include primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism, and instrumentalism. These approaches explore the origins and development of ethnic identities and the social, political, and historical factors that influence them.

Can race be considered a form of social stratification?

Yes, race can be considered a form of social stratification. Racial categories have historically been used to allocate different categories of workers in labor markets and to create hierarchies in societies. Racial prejudice and discrimination can lead to unequal access to resources, opportunities, and political power.

What are the main causes of race prejudice?

Some main causes of race prejudice include ethnocentrism, economic advantages, political advantages, compensation for frustration, ignorance, and pseudo-science. These factors can contribute to the development and perpetuation of racial stereotypes and discrimination.

What are some remedies for race prejudice?

Some remedies for race prejudice include education and exposure to different racial groups, promoting economic and political inclusivity, and addressing stereotypes and misinformation. Encouraging dialogue and understanding between different racial groups can also help reduce prejudice and discrimination.