Eastern Question: Crimean War | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Motives of Different Powers in the Crimean War

England:

• England participated in the Crimean War out of concern that a expanding Russia could threaten British interests in India. The British feared that Russian expansion into areas close to the route to India would pose a serious danger.
• A fundamental principle of British policy was to maintain the integrity of the Turkish Empire as a buffer against Russian aggression.

France:

• French Emperor Napoleon III had various motives for opposing Russia in the Crimean War.
• Supporting the Latin monks against Russia would appease the French clericals, whose support Napoleon deemed important.
• A war against Russia would avenge the humiliation of Moscow, satisfy French national pride, and bring glory to France, thereby bolstering Napoleon's popularity and stabilizing his throne.

Sardinia-Piedmont:

• Sardinia-Piedmont joined the allies in the hope of gaining the goodwill and support of a powerful ally to achieve the nationalist ambitions of Cavour.

Austria:

• Although Austria did not participate in the Crimean War, her stance was one of hostile neutrality.
• Austrian concern over the Russian occupation of Wallachia and Moldavia stemmed from the impact on the freedom of navigation on the Danube, crucial for her commercial traffic.
• Austria joined the allies in diplomatic pressure on Russia, demanding the evacuation of the Principalities.
• When Russia complied, Austria occupied the Principalities, preventing Russian advances on Constantinople.
• Austrian pressure was pivotal in forcing Russia to seek peace after the fall of Sebastopol, despite Tsar Nicholas expecting Austrian support due to past assistance in quelling the Hungarian revolt.
• Austrian actions in the war showed that political considerations outweighed past gratitude, and her hostile neutrality significantly contributed to Russia's defeat.

Results of the Crimean War

Russia was Checked:

• The Peace of Paris, which concluded the Crimean War, put a stop to Russia's ambitions regarding Turkey for a while.
• Russia was forced to give up all claims to act as a protector over the Orthodox Christian subjects of Turkey.
• Russia was also prevented from expanding into the Danube region due to the transfer of Bessarabia to Moldavia, and the Black Sea was neutralized.
• Additionally, the establishment of two autonomous states,Wallachia and Moldavia, created a barrier between Russia and Turkey, temporarily hindering Russia's expansionist plans.

Turkey was Temporarily Saved:

• In many ways,Turkey was the biggest beneficiary of the Crimean War.
• Turkey received a new lease of life under the joint protection of the Great Powers, with its territorial integrity guaranteed.
• It was also admitted as a member of the Concert of Europe, from which it had previously been excluded.
• This membership provided Turkey with an opportunity to reorganize and strengthen itself, paving the way for it to become a more respectable power.
• It is believed that this war also set the stage for the eventual independence of the Balkan states.

From these perspectives, the Peace of Paris can be seen as a satisfactory resolution to the Eastern Question. Russia's ambitions were curtailed, and the so-called "sick man" of Europe, Turkey, was given a chance to recover and stabilize.

The Crimean War: A Useless Conflict

• Robert Morier once stated, "The Crimean War was the only perfectly useless war that has been waged." Many view it as an unnecessary, largely futile, and extravagant war. The conflict began over trivial disputes regarding control over religious sites.
• After the war, there was a lingering sense that the outcomes did not justify the heavy sacrifices made. Whatever little was achieved seemed unlikely to last long. Future events would prove this intuition correct, reinforcing the belief that the Crimean War was the most senseless conflict of the nineteenth century.
• The Crimean War failed to provide a permanent solution to the Eastern Question.

Outcomes of the War:

• The Treaty of Paris that followed the war did not produce lasting results.
• The Sultan of Turkey did not implement the promised reforms for the Christian population within the Ottoman Empire, which he had agreed to in Paris after the war.
• The anticipated reforms in Turkey turned out to be illusory, and the integrity of Turkey, which was meant to be strengthened, became a diplomatic fiction.
• The primary goal of the war was to weaken Russia and curb its expansion. While Russian expansion in Europe was halted, it shifted to Central Asia, posing a new threat to British interests, particularly in India.
• Just fourteen years later, Russia disregarded the Treaty of Paris's stipulations regarding the neutrality of the Black Sea and, by 1878, completely erased the humiliation of Crimea by reclaiming Bessarabia.
• The cost of the war was staggering, with 25,000 British and 100,000 French soldiers losing their lives. Russia suffered even more, losing half a million men and depleting its resources.

Unintended Consequences:

• Despite the enormous cost and lack of enduring results, the Crimean War was rich in unintended consequences.
• Its significance should be measured not by immediate tangible outcomes but by the crucial political developments it set in motion.
• Many consider the Crimean War a watershed moment in European history.
• It disrupted the state system established by the Congress of Vienna and unleashed forces that ultimately triumphed in promoting liberalism and nationalism across Europe.
• It undermined Metternich’s policy of maintaining the status quo.

Impact on Italian and German Unification

Italian Unification:

• During the Crimean War, Piedmontese-Sardinian Prime Minister and diplomat Cavour saw an opportunity to garner foreign assistance for Italy's unification.
• Piedmont had no stake in the Eastern Question and no conflict with Russia.
• Cavour sent 17,000 troops to fight alongside the Allies against Russia.
• This alliance with England and France aimed to enhance Piedmont's international standing and create a moral obligation for future assistance, such as France's help against Austria.
• The Sardinian troops distinguished themselves in battle and returned home with honor.
• Cavour’s participation in the Congress of Paris in 1856 allowed him to raise the Italian question before the Great Powers, garnering sympathy for Italy’s plight under Austrian rule.
• This elevated the Italian question to a matter of European concern, ultimately aiding in Italy's unification.

German Unification:

• The Crimean War led to a realignment of powers that facilitated German unification.
• Austria's neutral stance during the war strained its relationship with Russia, which had previously saved the Austrian Empire from dissolution.
• This estrangement broke the alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia that had been central to Metternich’s policy.
• Russia’s displeasure with Austria pushed it closer to Prussia, altering the balance of power.
• Bismarck capitalized on Russia's rift with Austria to isolate Austria during the Austro-Prussian War.
• Russia’s neutrality during this conflict, akin to Austria's during the Crimean War, allowed Prussia to defeat Austria and lay the groundwork for the future German Empire.

Reforms in Russia

• The defeat in the Crimean War prompted significant reforms in Russia, pulling the country out of medieval stagnation.
• Public awareness of the Tsarist regime's corruption increased, leading to widespread discrediting of the Tsar and eventual popular discontent.
• Under Czar Alexander II, various reforms were implemented, the most notable being the emancipation of the serfs.

Shift in Russian Expansion:

• The war redirected Russian expansion from Europe to Central Asia, posing new threats to British interests, particularly in India.

Rise of Nationalism in the Balkans:

• The war spurred nationalist movements in the Balkans, which had significant repercussions in European politics.

Improvements in Military Health:

• A positive outcome of the Crimean War was the enhancement of camp sanitation and soldier health, largely due to Florence Nightingale's efforts.
• Nightingale organized a nursing team to care for sick and wounded soldiers, marking the early stages of what would later become the Red Cross movement.

Turkey as the "Sick Man of Europe":

• In 1853, leading up to the Crimean War, Czar Nicholas I of Russia labeled the Ottoman Empire as "a sick man—a very sick man." This characterization stemmed from the Ottoman Empire's increasing financial dependence on European powers and its loss of territory through a series of unfortunate wars.
• By 1914, the once-powerful Ottoman Empire had significantly weakened, becoming widely known as "the sick man of Europe." The empire continued to decline, ultimately dissolving in 1922, giving rise to several smaller states like Serbia, Bulgaria, and Albania, along with the establishment of the present-day Republic of Turkey.