Emergence of two Power Blocs: Beginnings of the Cold War | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Beginnings of the Cold War (1947–53)

• The initial phase of the Cold War unfolded within the first two years following the conclusion of the Second World War in 1945. During this period, the USSR solidified its grip on the Eastern Bloc nations, while the United States embarked on a strategy of global containment to counter Soviet influence. This strategy involved extending military and financial assistance to Western European countries and establishing the NATO alliance.
• The Berlin Blockade (1948–49) marked the first significant crisis of the Cold War.
• With the victory of the Communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the onset of the Korean War (1950–53), the conflict intensified and expanded. The USSR and the USA began competing for influence in Latin America and the decolonizing nations of Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia.

Cominform and the Tito-Stalin Split

Cominform:

• Cominform, short for Communist Information Bureau, was established by Joseph Stalin in September 1947 as a response to the Marshall Plan. It aimed to unify various European communist parties under Soviet leadership.
• The organization included all Soviet satellite states, as well as the French and Italian communist parties. Its primary purpose was to enforce strict adherence to Soviet-style communism and exert greater control over Eastern Bloc countries.
• Cominform sought to ensure that Eastern European states followed a path of industrialization, collectivization, and centralization, with a focus on trading primarily within the bloc and minimizing contacts with non-communist countries.
• Similar to the Third International, Cominform functioned more as an instrument of Soviet policy than as a promoter of global communist revolution.
• When Yugoslavia, under Tito, resisted these directives, it was expelled from Cominform in 1948, despite remaining a communist state.
• In 1947, the Molotov Plan was introduced to offer Soviet aid to satellite states, and another organization, Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), was established to coordinate economic policies among these countries.
• Cominform was eventually dissolved in 1956 as a result of improved relations between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia and the process of de-Stalinization within the USSR.

The Tito-Stalin Split:

• The Tito-Stalin Split, also known as the Yugoslav-Soviet Split, was a significant conflict between Josip Broz Tito, the leader of Yugoslavia, and Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union. This dispute led to Yugoslavia's expulsion from the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) in 1948. The period that followed, called the Informbiro Period (1948-1955), was marked by strained relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR.
• The term "Informbiro" refers to the Cominform Resolution of June 28, 1948, which accused the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) of deviating from Marxism-Leninism and exhibiting an anti-Soviet attitude. This resolution ultimately led to the KPJ's expulsion from Cominform.
• As a result of this expulsion, Yugoslavia emerged outside the Soviet sphere of influence, developing its own brand of communism that was independent of Soviet directives.
• While the Soviets portrayed the split as a matter of Yugoslav disloyalty, it was largely due to Tito's refusal to comply with Stalin's directives. Disagreements over Balkan policies and Tito's ambitions to unify with Bulgaria and Albania without consulting Moscow were central to the conflict.
• Another contentious issue was Tito's desire to support revolutionary activities in Greece, which contradicted Stalin's earlier agreements with Western powers regarding spheres of influence in Eastern Europe.
• Following the split, Yugoslavia pursued its unique path to socialism and became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. Under Tito's leadership, the country distanced itself from both the Eastern Bloc and NATO.
• In 1955, after Stalin's death, Nikita Khrushchev reconciled with Tito, signifying a thaw in relations between the two countries. However, Yugoslavia remained outside the Eastern Bloc and developed a distinct form of socialism.
• Tito's domestic policies underwent significant changes post-split, including the closure of prisons and the loosening of media controls, setting Yugoslavia apart from other Eastern Bloc countries.

Greece Civil War, Containment, and the Truman Doctrine

• The Greek Civil War, fought from 1946 to 1949, was a conflict between the Greek government army, supported by Great Britain and the United States, and the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE), the military wing of the Greek Communist Party (KKE), which received backing from Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria.
• The war was rooted in a struggle between left and right that began in 1943, targeting the power vacuum created by the end of German and Italian occupation during World War II. The conflict was one of the first instances of Cold War tensions and marked early postwar involvement in a foreign country's internal politics.
• The DSE was formed by the Communist Party of Greece and received funding from communist countries, with many members being partisans who had fought against occupation forces during the war.
• Ultimately, the Greek government forces triumphed, aided significantly by U.S. support through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. The insurgents were weakened by a split between Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin, who wanted to end the war, and Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito, who wanted to continue it.

Truman Doctrine:

• By 1947, U.S. President Harry S. Truman faced increasing pressure from his advisors to take decisive action against the Soviet Union's expanding influence. Concerns were raised about Stalin's efforts to destabilize the U.S. by fostering rivalries among capitalist nations, potentially leading to another war.
• In February 1947, the British government announced its inability to continue financing the Greek monarchical military regime in its struggle against communist-led insurgents. This prompted British Foreign Minister Ernest Bevin to appeal to the United States for support.
• In response, the American government adopted a policy of containment, aimed at halting the spread of communism. President Truman delivered a speech advocating for the allocation of $400 million to aid Greece and Turkey, framing the conflict as a struggle between free peoples and totalitarian regimes.
• The Truman Doctrine represented a significant shift in U.S. foreign policy, committing the nation to supporting any country threatened by communism or Soviet influence with military and economic aid.
• Truman emphasized the need to support free peoples resisting subjugation by armed minorities or external pressures, viewing these totalitarian regimes as threats to international peace and U.S. national security.
• The immediate effects of the Truman Doctrine were evident in Greece, which received substantial military aid and supplies, leading to the defeat of communist forces by 1949. Turkey also received significant assistance, amounting to approximately $60 million, to bolster its stability.
• The Truman Doctrine marked a departure from U.S. isolationism, establishing a commitment to containing communism globally, including in regions like Korea and Vietnam.
• This doctrine laid the groundwork for U.S. foreign policy, positioning the nation as a global policeman and setting a precedent for supporting anti-communist regimes worldwide, regardless of their democratic credentials.
• The enunciation of the Truman Doctrine signified the beginning of a bipartisan U.S. defense and foreign policy consensus focused on containment and deterrence, a framework that endured despite challenges during and after the Vietnam War.

Domino's Theory

• The domino theory was a key idea in U.S. foreign policy from the early 1950s. It suggested that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would quickly follow suit. In Southeast Asia, this theory justified U.S. support for the non-communist government in South Vietnam against the communist regime in North Vietnam, leading to increased American involvement in the Vietnam War (1954-75). Although the U.S. could not prevent a communist victory in Vietnam, and communist governments did emerge in Laos and Cambodia after 1975, communism did not spread throughout the rest of Southeast Asia.
• In September 1945, Vietnamese nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam's independence from France, sparking a conflict between Ho's communist-led Viet Minh in the north and a French-backed regime in the south. Under President Harry S. Truman, the U.S. provided covert military and financial aid to the French, fearing that a communist victory in Indochina would lead to the spread of communism throughout Southeast Asia. Truman applied the same logic by aiding Greece and Turkey in the late 1940s to contain communism in Europe and the Middle East.

Marshall Plan and Molotov Plan

• Declared in June 1947, the Marshall Plan was an economic extension of the Truman Doctrine, aimed at providing financial and economic assistance to European countries in need.
• U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall proposed the European Recovery Programme (ERP) to promote recovery and stability in Europe.
• Marshall emphasized that the policy was not against any country but aimed at combating hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos in post-war Europe.
• The ERP aimed to enhance productivity, labor union membership, and modern business practices while also fostering economic recovery.
• A prosperous Europe would not only create markets for American exports but also reduce the likelihood of communist influence.
• The plan required cooperation among European nations and emphasized the importance of German economic recovery.
• By September 1947, 16 nations had agreed on a joint plan for utilizing American aid.
• Over $13 billion of Marshall Aid was disbursed in the following years, aiding the recovery of agriculture and industry in war-devastated countries.
• The plan significantly contributed to the revival of industries such as chemicals, engineering, and steel in Western Europe.
• Communist parties in Western Europe faced electoral defeats during this period, particularly in countries like France and Italy.
• The Marshall Plan was later extended to less-developed countries under the Point Four Program.
• While American historians credited the Marshall Plan with Europe's recovery, European historians argued that recovery conditions were already in place before aid arrived.
• The USSR rejected the Marshall Plan, viewing it as "dollar imperialism," and prevented its satellite states from accepting aid.
• The Molotov Plan was the Soviet response to the Marshall Plan, involving economic integration with Eastern Bloc countries.
• The National Security Act of 1947, signed by Truman, established key U.S. institutions for Cold War policy.

Molotov Plan:

• The Molotov Plan was the Soviet Union's alternative to the Marshall Plan, aimed at integrating Eastern Bloc countries economically.
• Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov rejected the Marshall Plan, proposing the Molotov Plan instead.
• The Molotov Plan eventually evolved into the COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), an economic organization from 1949 to 1991.
• The plan symbolized the Soviet Union's refusal to accept Marshall Plan aid and its intent to maintain control over its satellite states.
• Stalin feared that the Marshall Plan would weaken Soviet influence in Eastern Europe and lead to a rearmed Germany, which he viewed as a potential threat.

Coup d'état in Czechoslovakia of 1948

• The coup d'état in Czechoslovakia in 1948 was a significant event during the early Cold War period, marking the last democratic government in Eastern Europe before a wave of communist takeovers.
• After World War II, Czechoslovakia had a coalition government with communists and other left-wing parties, freely elected in 1946. The communists, led by Klement Gottwald, won a substantial share of seats and held a third of the cabinet positions. This was the best performance by a European Communist party in a free election.
• President Edvard Beneš and Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk hoped to maintain Czechoslovakia as a bridge between East and West due to its advanced industries. However, by 1948, the communists faced declining support and were blamed for rejecting Marshall Aid, which could have alleviated food shortages.
• To secure their power, the communists executed an armed coup before the upcoming elections, controlling the unions and police. Most non-communist ministers resigned, and Masaryk was found dead under suspicious circumstances, officially ruled a suicide but widely believed to be murder.
• The May elections were rigged, presenting only a single list of communist candidates. Gottwald became president after Beneš resigned.
• The Western powers and the United Nations protested, but they couldn't prove Soviet involvement, as the coup was seen as an internal affair. However, it was evident that Stalin had influenced the Czech communists, especially due to the repositioning of Russian troops near the Czech border.
• The coup was emblematic of the Cold War, as it eliminated the last democratic state in Eastern Europe and solidified the Soviet bloc's dominance. It shocked many in the West and unified Western countries against the communist threat.
• The brutal nature of the coup swayed U.S. opinion towards the Marshall Plan, leading to its swift adoption. It also prompted the establishment of NATO and the firm delineation of the Iron Curtain, which remained until the fall of communism in 1989.

Berlin Blockade and Airlift:

• The Berlin Blockade and Airlift marked the first major crisis of the Cold War, stemming from disagreements over Germany's post-war treatment.
• At the end of World War II, Germany and Berlin were divided into four zones as agreed upon at Yalta and Potsdam. While the Western powers worked to rebuild their zones, Stalin exploited his zone, draining resources to Russia.
• The U.S. aimed to reconstruct Germany as a prosperous democracy and trading partner, while the USSR sought to weaken Germany and establish a buffer of friendly states, demanding heavy reparations.
• In June 1948, Britain, France, and America merged their zones into West Germany, creating a contrastingly prosperous region thanks to Marshall Aid, in stark contrast to the impoverished Russian zone.
• Concerned about the potential reunification of the Western zones, Stalin responded by blockading West Berlin on June 24, 1948, cutting off all rail and road links to force the West out.
• The Berlin Blockade lasted from June 1948 to May 1949 and was one of the early significant crises of the Cold War. The Western powers, believing the blockade aimed to starve Berlin into submission, decided to sustain their presence by airlifting supplies to the city.
• Over ten months, 2 million tons of supplies were airlifted, keeping the 2.5 million residents of West Berlin fed and warm through the winter. The Soviets attempted to undermine the airlift through public relations campaigns and interference in municipal elections.
• By spring 1949, the airlift was proving successful. On May 11, 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade, admitting defeat.
• The outcome of the Berlin Blockade and Airlift provided a psychological boost to the Western powers, despite worsening relations with the USSR. It led to the formation of NATO in 1949 and the permanent division of Germany, symbolizing the deepening Cold War divide.
• Germany was split into the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), with the division of Berlin mirroring this split. The Western powers began to rebuild and re-industrialize their zones in accordance with the Marshall Plan, introducing a new currency and laying the foundation for a prosperous West Germany.

Formation of NATO and Radio Free Europe

• The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established in April 1949 as a response to the Berlin blockade, which highlighted the West's military unpreparedness.
• Prior to NATO's formation, Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg had signed the Brussels Defence Treaty in March 1948, committing to military collaboration in case of war. The United States, Canada, Portugal, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, and Norway later joined this alliance.
• In the early 1950s, the U.S. advocated for the rearmament of West Germany, leading to its full membership in NATO in 1955.
• All member nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty, agreeing that an attack on one would be considered an attack on all. They placed their defense forces under a joint NATO command to coordinate Western defense.
• This marked a significant shift in U.S. policy, as it moved away from the principle of 'no entangling alliances' and committed to military action in advance. Soviet leader Joseph Stalin viewed this as a provocation, escalating tensions further.

Radio Free Europe:

• Media in the Eastern Bloc was strictly controlled by the state and the communist party, serving as a tool for Soviet propaganda.
• Soviet propaganda attacked capitalism using Marxist philosophy, accusing it of labor exploitation and imperialistic war-mongering.
• In addition to broadcasts from the BBC and the Voice of America, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) was established in 1949 as a major propaganda effort aimed at promoting the peaceful end of communism in the Eastern Bloc.
• RFE/RL was initially funded by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) until 1972 and was conceived by early Cold War strategists who believed that the conflict would be resolved through political means rather than military action.
• The CIA also covertly supported a domestic propaganda campaign called Crusade for Freedom.

Chinese Civil War, SEATO, and the Baghdad Pact (CENTO)

Chinese Civil War and the Rise of Communism:

• In 1949, Mao Zedong's People’s Liberation Army overthrew Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang (KMT) government in China, which had been supported by the United States.
• Following the victory, the Soviet Union formed an alliance with the newly established People’s Republic of China.
• Chiang Kai-shek and his government retreated to Taiwan.
• The Truman administration, faced with the communist revolution in China and the end of the U.S. atomic monopoly in 1949, intensified and expanded the policy of containment.
• This expansion of containment aimed to counter revolutionary nationalist movements, often led by communist parties backed by the USSR, across Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
• The U.S. sought to prevent the restoration of European colonial empires in Southeast Asia and elsewhere.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO):

• In the early 1950s, the United States formalized alliances with countries such as Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, and the Philippines.
• Notably, the ANZUS Treaty (Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty) was established in 1951, followed by the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954.
• SEATO was created as a collective defense organization in Southeast Asia through the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, also known as the Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines.
• Despite its regional name, SEATO primarily included countries outside Southeast Asia, such as Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
• The organization aimed to prevent further communist expansion in Southeast Asia. However, SEATO is often regarded as a failure due to internal conflicts and disputes that limited its military effectiveness.
• Nevertheless, SEATO-funded cultural and educational programs left lasting impacts in Southeast Asia. The organization was dissolved on June 30, 1977, as member interest waned and countries withdrew.

The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO):

• The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), originally called the Baghdad Pact and later known as the Middle East Treaty Organization (METO), was formed in 1955 by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom through the Baghdad Pact.
• Although the United States initially could not participate due to Congressional approval issues and budgeting technicalities, U.S. pressure and promises of military and economic aid were crucial in the negotiations leading to the agreement.
• In 1958, the United States joined the military committee of the alliance.
• After the Iraqi monarchy was overthrown on July 14, 1958, the new government under General Abdul Karim Qasim withdrew Iraq from the Baghdad Pact, established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, and adopted a non-aligned stance.
• Following this, the organization changed its name from the Baghdad Pact to CENTO.
• CENTO is generally considered one of the less successful Cold War alliances. The organization’s headquarters were initially in Baghdad (1955–1958) and later in Ankara (1958–1979).

Korean War

• The Korean War had its roots in the Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910 until Japan's defeat in August 1945. After the defeat of Japan, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to divide Korea along the 38th parallel to facilitate the Japanese surrender and withdrawal. The north was to be administered by the Soviets and the south by the Americans. Initially, this division was not meant to be permanent; the United Nations aimed for free elections across the entire country. The Americans believed that since their zone contained two-thirds of the population, a unified Korea would likely be non-Communist.
• However, the unification of Korea became a point of contention during the Cold War. In the south, elections supervised by the UN led to the establishment of the Republic of Korea (South Korea) in August 1948, with Syngman Rhee as its president. In contrast, the Soviet Union established the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) in September 1948 under Kim Il Sung. By 1949, both American and Soviet troops had withdrawn, leaving behind a divided nation with both leaders claiming the right to govern the entire peninsula.
• Syngman Rhee in the south was known for his authoritarian rule, while Kim Il Sung in the north was even more repressive, drawing parallels to Stalin's regime. Tensions escalated when North Korean troops invaded South Korea in June 1950.

Reasons for the North Korean Invasion:

• American Statement: Kim Il Sung was influenced by a statement from the American Secretary of State that suggested the U.S. would not defend Korea.
• Chinese Influence: Support from the new Chinese communist government, which was preoccupied with its own military actions against Chiang Kai-shek, may have encouraged Kim Il Sung.
• Soviet Support: Stalin's provision of military supplies to North Korea and the desire to test Western resolve could have played a role in the invasion.
• Kim Il Sung’s Initiative: It is widely believed that Kim Il Sung actively pushed for the invasion, with the USSR and China providing backing but not intending to become directly involved.

US Intervention:
President Truman's decision to intervene was influenced by several factors:

• Belief that the invasion was orchestrated by Stalin as part of a broader communist expansion plan.
• Comparison of the situation to Hitler's aggression in the 1930s, advocating against appeasement.
• Desire to support the United Nations and avoid the mistakes that led to the League of Nations' failure.
• Pressure from Republicans, particularly Senator Joseph McCarthy, who accused the State Department of being infiltrated by communists.
• Shift in American policy from economic support to military intervention in defense of South Korea.

American troops stationed in Japan were sent to Korea before the UN had finalized its response. The UN, with U.S. leadership, sent troops to defend South Korea. The UN Security Council supported this action, as the Soviet Union was boycotting meetings over Taiwan's UN representation.

• UN forces, led by General Douglas MacArthur, fought for South Korea, while China and the Soviet Union supported North Korea. By October, UN forces nearly conquered all of North Korea. Alarmed by the potential threat to China, the Chinese government intervened in November 1950, pushing back American forces. The conflict saw back-and-forth advances until a stalemate was reached around the 38th parallel.
• Despite exhaustion on both sides, Stalin insisted on continuing the fight until an armistice was reached in July 1953, after his death. The armistice created the Korean Demilitarized Zone, separating North and South Korea, but technically, the two nations remain at war as no peace treaty was signed.

Consequences of the War

• The Korean War had devastating effects on Korea, with about four million soldiers and civilians killed, and five million left homeless. The division of Korea became permanent, with both North and South Korea heavily armed and distrustful of each other. The war also strengthened NATO and showcased American military strength, despite criticisms that the U.S. missed an opportunity to defeat communism in China.
• The UN demonstrated its authority by reversing aggression, but was viewed by the communist world as a tool of capitalism. China's military performance was impressive, solidifying its status as a world power by preventing a U.S.-influenced unified Korea.
• The conflict strained U.S. relations with both China and Russia, leading to new alliances in Asia and Europe. China supported communist movements in Indo-China and offered aid to developing countries, while the U.S. sought to encircle China with military bases. Despite efforts to form alliances, many Asian countries remained uncommitted to the Cold War.
• Relations between the U.S. and China were also complicated by the Taiwan issue, with the U.S. committed to defending Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalist Party. Public opinion in involved countries, including Great Britain, was divided on the war, with fears of escalation into a broader conflict. British officials sought a quick end to the war, aiming for a united Korea under UN supervision and withdrawal of foreign forces.