Emergence of two Power Blocs: Thaw and Escalation | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Thaw and Escalation (1953–62)

Extent of 'Thaw' in Cold War (1953–62)
After 1953, there were signs of improvement in East-West relations, though the thaw was not consistent, and disagreements remained.

Reasons for the Thaw:

• The Death of Stalin: The death of Stalin marked the beginning of the thaw as new Soviet leaders like Malenkov, Bulganin, and Khrushchev emerged, aiming to improve relations with the USA. By 1953, both the US and the Soviet Union had developed hydrogen bombs, creating a precarious balance that necessitated a relaxation of international tensions to avoid nuclear war. Khrushchev later articulated this shift towards 'peaceful coexistence' with the West, emphasizing the need for a communist-dominated world to be achieved through the superiority of the Soviet economic system rather than military defeat.
• McCarthy Discredited: Anti-communist sentiments in the USA, fueled by Senator Joseph McCarthy, began to wane after McCarthy was discredited in 1954. His extreme accusations, particularly against leading generals, led to his condemnation by the Senate. President Eisenhower's subsequent call for friendship between the American and Soviet peoples further reflected this shift.

Signs of Thaw:

• Peace Agreement at Panmunjom: In July 1953, the signing of the peace agreement at Panmunjom marked the end of the Korean War.
• Concessions by Russia (1955): Russia made significant concessions, including the abandonment of military bases in Finland, lifting the veto on the admission of 16 new UN member states, healing the rift with Yugoslavia through Khrushchev's visit to Tito, and the dissolution of the Cominform, indicating greater freedom for satellite states.
• Austrian State Treaty (May 1955): This treaty was a pivotal moment in the thaw. After WWII, Austria was divided into four occupation zones, with the capital, Vienna, in the Russian zone. Unlike Germany, Austria was allowed a government but had limited powers. The Russians initially imposed reparations but, fearing a merger between West Germany and western Austria, agreed to withdraw their troops. Austria became independent with her 1937 borders and pledged neutrality, unable to join NATO or the European Economic Community.

Partial Thaw:

• Khrushchev's approach was mixed; despite conciliatory gestures, he maintained a tight grip on satellite states.
• The Warsaw Pact (1955) was established as a mutual defense agreement among Russia and its satellite states, partly in response to West Germany joining NATO.
• Continued Soviet nuclear armament buildup.
• Tension in Berlin escalated, ultimately leading to the construction of the Berlin Wall.
• The most provocative act was the installation of Soviet missiles in Cuba by Khrushchev in 1962, located just a hundred miles from the American coast.

Escalation

1. Khrushchev, Eisenhower, and John Foster Dulles:

• In 1953, changes in political leadership on both sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War.
• Dwight D. Eisenhower was inaugurated president that January.
• During the last 18 months of the Truman administration, the American defense budget had quadrupled, and Eisenhower moved to reduce military spending by a third while continuing to fight the Cold War effectively.
• In 1953, Stalin died and Nikita Khrushchev became the Soviet leader following the pushing aside of rivals.
• He was a jolly man, who said to prevent the most destructive war in history, there needed to be “peaceful co-existence” between the superpowers.
• On 25 February 1956, Khrushchev shocked delegates to the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party by cataloguing and denouncing Stalin’s crimes.
• As part of a campaign of de-Stalinization, he declared that the only way to reform and move away from Stalin’s policies would be to acknowledge errors made in the past. Everyone hoped that it would improve East-West relations. It did not.
• In fact, the period 1953-1962 was the time of greatest danger in the Cold War.
• America and Russia competed with each other in the arms race, in sport, and in the space race.
• On 18 November 1956, while addressing Western ambassadors at a reception at the Polish embassy in Moscow, Khrushchev used his famous “Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We will bury you” expression, shocking everyone present.
• Eisenhower’s secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, initiated a “New Look” for the containment strategy, calling for a greater reliance on nuclear weapons against US enemies in wartime.
• It reflected Eisenhower’s concern for balancing the Cold War military commitments of the United States with the nation’s financial resources.
• The policy emphasized reliance on strategic nuclear weapons to deter potential threats, both conventional and nuclear, from Soviet Union.
• Dulles also enunciated the doctrine of “massive retaliation”, threatening a severe US response to any Soviet aggression and Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) during nuclear war as deterrence.
• Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship: “The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art.“
• Dulles’ hard line alienated many leaders of non-aligned countries when on June 9, 1955, he argued in a speech that “neutrality has increasingly become obsolete and, except under very exceptional circumstances, it is an immoral and short sighted conception.”
• Possessing nuclear superiority, for example, allowed Eisenhower to face down Soviet threats to intervene in the Middle East during the 1956 Suez Crisis.

2. Warsaw Pact, 1955:

• While Stalin’s death in 1953 slightly relaxed tensions, the situation in Europe remained an uneasy armed truce.
• The Soviets, who had already created a network of mutual assistance treaties in the Eastern Bloc by 1949, established a formal alliance therein, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955.
• The Warsaw Pact (formally, the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance) was a collective defense treaty among eight communist states of Central and Eastern Europe.
• The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic organization for the communist States of Central and Eastern Europe.
• The Warsaw Pact was in part a Soviet military reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955 as per the Paris Pacts of 1954, but was primarily motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern Europe; in turn (according to The Warsaw Pact’s preamble) meant to maintain peace in Europe, guided by the objective points and principles of the Charter of the United Nations (1945).
• After the collapse of the USSR and the end of the Cold War, the alliance was transformed into the subsequent Collective Security Treaty Organization, or CSTO.

3. Hungarian Revolution (1956):

• The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a spontaneous nationwide revolt against the government of the Hungarian People’s Republic and its Soviet-imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956.
• Though leaderless when it first began, it was the first major threat to Soviet control. Despite the failure of the uprising, it was highly influential, and came to play a role in the downfall of the Soviet Union decades later.
• Factors responsible:
• The Hungarians were patriotic, and they hated Russian control, especially:
• The secret police called the AVH in Hungary.
• Russian control of the economy, which had made Hungary poor.
• Russian control of what the schools taught.
• Censorship and lack of freedom.
• The Hungarians were religious, but the Communist Party had banned religion, and imprisoned Cardinal Mindszenty.
• Hungarians thought that the United Nations or the new US president, Eisenhower, would help them.
• The death of Stalin led many Hungarians to hope that Hungary also would be ‘de-Stalinised’. In July 1956, the ‘Stalinist’ Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party, Rakosi, fell from power.
• During October 1956, students, workers and soldiers in Hungary attacked the AVH (the secret police) and Russian soldiers, and smashed a statue of Stalin.
• On 24 October 1956 Imre Nagy – a moderate and a westerniser – took over as prime minister.
• Nagy asked Khrushchev to move the Russian troops out. Khrushchev agreed and on 28 October 1956, the Russian army pulled out of Budapest.
• For five days, there was freedom in Hungary. The new Hungarian government introduced democracy, freedom of speech, and freedom of religion. Cardinal Mindszenty, the leader of the Catholic Church, was freed from prison.
• Then, on 3 November 1956, Nagy announced that Hungary was going to leave the Warsaw Pact.
• However, Khrushchev was not going to allow this.
• He claimed he had received a letter from Hungarian Communist leaders asking for his help.
• At dawn on 4 November 1956, 1,000 Russian tanks rolled into Budapest. They destroyed the Hungarian army and captured Hungarian Radio.
• Hungarian people – even children – fought the Russian troops with machine guns. Some 4,000 Hungarians were killed. Hungarian leader Imre Nagy and others were executed following secret trials. Khrushchev put in Russian supporter, Janos Kadar, as prime minister.

Effects of the Hungarian Revolution:

• Repression in Hungary:
• Thousands of Hungarians were arrested and imprisoned. Some were executed and 200,000 Hungarian refugees fled to Austria.
• Russia stayed in control behind the Iron Curtain:
• No other country tried to get rid of Russia troops until Czechoslovakia in 1968.
• Polarisation of the Cold War:
• People in the West were horrified – many Communists left the Communist Party – and Western leaders became more determined to contain communism.
• The events in Hungary produced ideological fractures within the Communist parties of the world, particularly in Western Europe, with great decline in membership as many in both western and communist countries felt disillusioned by the brutal Soviet response.
• The communist parties in the West would never recover from the effect the Hungarian Revolution had on their membership, a fact that was immediately recognized by some, such as the Yugoslavian politician Dilas who shortly after the revolution was crushed said that “The wound which the Hungarian Revolution inflicted on communism can never be completely healed“.

Competition in the Third World

During the post-World War II era, especially in the 1950s and early 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union vied for influence in newly independent nations of the Third World. This competition was often framed within the context of decolonization, with both superpowers seeking to extend their ideological reach and geopolitical power. Nationalist movements in countries like Guatemala, Indonesia, and Indochina were either allied with communist factions or perceived as such by the West, further intensifying this competition.

Arms Sales and CIA Operations:

• Both the US and the Soviet Union sold arms to Third World countries to gain influence.
• The US, through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), intervened in various countries to remove unfriendly governments and support those aligned with American interests.

Key Events:

• 1953 Iranian Coup: The US and UK orchestrated the overthrow of Iran's democratically elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh, who had sought to nationalize the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. The coup restored the pro-Western Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who ruled autocratically.
• 1954 Guatemalan Coup: The CIA backed a military coup that ousted leftist President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman. The new regime reversed progressive reforms and aligned closely with US interests.
• Indonesian Intervention: The US supported anti-communist military leaders in Indonesia against President Sukarno, providing arms and funding to dissident factions.
• Congo Crisis: After Congo gained independence from Belgium, the CIA supported President Joseph Kasa-Vubu in dismissing the elected Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, leading to a military coup by Colonel Mobutu.
• British Guiana: The US pressured Britain to delay the independence of British Guiana until a non-leftist alternative to the elected leftist leader Cheddi Jagan could be found.
• Vietnam: After the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, Vietnam was divided into North and South at the Geneva Conference. The US supported the anti-communist regime in South Vietnam.

Non-Aligned Movement:

• Many emerging nations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America sought to remain neutral during the Cold War. The Bandung Conference in 1955 laid the groundwork for the Non-Aligned Movement, which was formally established in 1961.
• The movement aimed to provide a platform for countries that did not want to align with either the US or the Soviet Union, promoting cooperation and solidarity among developing nations.

Suez Crisis (1956)

Background Leading to the Suez Crisis:

• Colonel Nasser, the leader of Egypt, was a strong advocate for Arab unity and independence, which included the liberation of Palestine. His actions, such as organizing guerrilla fighters to attack Israel and blockading the Gulf of Aqaba, angered Britain, the United States, and France.
• In 1936, Britain had signed a treaty with Egypt that allowed British troops to remain at Suez, but this treaty was set to expire in 1956. Nasser refused to renew it, insisting on the immediate withdrawal of British troops.
• Nasser also supported the Algerian Arabs in their struggle against France, opposed the British-sponsored Baghdad Pact, and signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia for military equipment, which alarmed the Americans.
• In response to Nasser's alignment with the Eastern bloc, the US cancelled a promised grant for the Aswan Dam, prompting Nasser to nationalize the Suez Canal to finance the dam.
• The British, fearing that Nasser would unify Arabia under Egyptian control and communist influence, decided to take military action to restore their influence in the region.

Repercussions on Global Politics:

• The intervention in the Suez Crisis was a failure for Britain, France, and Israel.
• The US, under President Dwight Eisenhower, was outraged by the attacks, which led to an international outcry.
• Both the US and the Soviet Union called for an immediate ceasefire, and the UN prepared to send troops to police the area.
• Facing global pressure and the threat of Soviet intervention, Britain, France, and Israel withdrew their forces.
• The crisis damaged Britain's prestige and influence, showing that it could no longer act independently of the US.
• The war failed to overthrow Nasser, who emerged with increased popularity as a leader of Arab nationalism against Western intervention.
• Egyptian control of the canal was reasserted, and the Suez Crisis had lasting impacts on Middle Eastern politics and the balance of power in the region.
• Following the crisis, Britain lost an ally in Iraq, and the British action contributed to the rise of anti-colonial sentiments in the region.
• The crisis also marked a shift in Israeli foreign policy, as Israel began to look to the US for support rather than Britain.

Sino-Soviet Split:

• After 1956, the Soviet Union faced significant challenges, particularly the breakdown of the Sino-Soviet alliance, known as the Sino-Soviet split.
• The split, which occurred from 1960 to 1989, involved the deterioration of political and ideological relations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the USSR during the Cold War.
• This rift stemmed from differing national interests and interpretations of Marxism, with China advocating Maoism and the Soviet Union adhering to Marxism-Leninism.

Ideological Differences:

• In the 1950s and 1960s, the Chinese and Russian communist parties debated the potential for peaceful coexistence with the capitalist West.
• Mao Zedong initially rejected peaceful coexistence, viewing it as a revisionist stance by the Soviets.
• Mao defended Stalin during Khrushchev's critique of the former leader, and Khrushchev criticized Mao's approach to nuclear warfare.

Deterioration of Relations:

• In 1958, Mao's Great Leap Forward, which included nuclear weapons development, clashed with Khrushchev's more reformist policies.
• The Soviets refused to assist China in developing nuclear weapons, further straining relations.
• Tensions became public in 1959 when the USSR supported the Tibetan people during their uprising against Chinese rule.
• The split became evident at the 1960 Romanian Communist Party Congress, where Mao and Khrushchev publicly insulted each other.

Consequences of the Split:

• The Sino-Soviet split significantly impacted international politics in the late 20th century.
• The two communist powers nearly engaged in war in 1968 over border disputes, and the Soviets considered a preemptive strike against Chinese nuclear sites.
• When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979, China perceived it as an aggressive move, leading China to ally with the US and Pakistan to support Afghan guerrilla fighters against the Soviet invasion.
• The split was a pivotal event in the Cold War, influencing the dynamics of international communism and the warming of US-China relations under President Richard Nixon in 1971.
• China and the Soviet Union maintained tense relations until Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's visit to Beijing in 1989.

Space Race Overview

• The Space Race was a 20th-century competition (1955–1972) between the USSR and the USA to achieve dominance in spaceflight.
• Technological superiority in space was seen as crucial for national security and a symbol of ideological strength.

Key Events in the Space Race:

• Launch of Sputnik 1 (1957): The competition began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union announced its intention to launch an artificial satellite, responding to the US's earlier announcement. The USSR achieved this goal first with the launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957.
• Apollo 11 Moon Landing (1969): The Space Race reached its peak with the US landing the first humans on the Moon on July 20, 1969, during the Apollo 11 mission. This event was seen as a significant victory in the Cold War context.
• Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (1972): The Space Race concluded with a period of détente, marked by the April 1972 agreement on the cooperative Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. This collaboration culminated in the July 1975 rendezvous of a US astronaut crew with a Soviet cosmonaut crew in Earth orbit.

Origins in the Missile Arms Race:

• The Space Race had its roots in the missile-based arms race that followed World War II. Both the Soviet Union and the United States had acquired advanced German rocket technology and personnel, which laid the groundwork for their subsequent space endeavors.

U2 Incident and Paris Summit of 1960:

• By the end of the 1950s, tensions in the Cold War were high due to various factors.
• The arms race led both sides to acknowledge the need for some form of Nuclear Test Ban treaty.
• Berlin was a point of contention, with many East Germans fleeing to the West through West Berlin, causing anger in the Soviet Union.
• Cuba was a concern for the Americans after Fidel Castro, a Communist, took power there in 1959.
• A summit meeting was scheduled in Paris to address these issues.
• On May 1, 1960, just thirteen days before the summit, an American U2 spy plane was shot down over Russia, and the pilot, Gary Powers, was captured.
• Initially, the Americans claimed the plane was a weather research aircraft, but they had to admit it was a spy plane when the Russians displayed the wreckage and Powers, who was alive.
• When the summit convened on May 14, Khrushchev demanded an apology from US President Eisenhower, who refused. This led to Khrushchev leaving the conference in a rage.
• The U2 incident escalated the Cold War significantly. Its effects included:
  • The collapse of the Paris meeting and the absence of a Test Ban Treaty.
  • No discussions on the Berlin issue, which eventually resulted in the Berlin Wall.
  • The incident being perceived as a defeat for the US, contributing to the election of John F. Kennedy as president, who promised a tougher stance against the Soviets.

Berlin Ultimatum and Berlin Crisis of 1961:

• In 1961, West Berlin posed a significant concern and embarrassment for the Soviet Union for several reasons.
• Approximately 2,000 refugees were fleeing to the West daily through West Berlin, undermining the Soviet claim that life under Communism was preferable to capitalism.
• Many of those leaving were skilled workers, resulting in a significant "brain drain" from East Germany to West Germany.
• The Soviets suspected West Berlin was a hub for US espionage activities.
• The Berlin Crisis of 1961 marked a pivotal moment in the Cold War concerning the status of Berlin and post-World War II Germany.
• During the Vienna Summit in June 1961, Khrushchev demanded that the US withdraw from West Berlin within six months. President Kennedy refused and instead ensured West Berlin's continued freedom.
• On August 13, 1961, Khrushchev closed the border between East and West Berlin and initiated the construction of the Berlin Wall. This action effectively sealed the loophole for East Germans fleeing to the West and led to the city's de facto division.
• Initially, the Soviets viewed the construction of the Berlin Wall as a propaganda success. However, over time, it became a propaganda failure, symbolizing the negative aspects of Soviet rule.
• In 1963, President Kennedy visited West Berlin and delivered his famous "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech next to the Berlin Wall, further solidifying the Wall's significance.
• Khrushchev had previously told Mao Zedong that "Berlin is the testicles of the West. Every time I want to make the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin," highlighting the strategic importance of Berlin in the Cold War.

Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban Missile Crisis

Introduction to Cuba in the Cold War:

• Cuba became a part of the Cold War in 1959 when Fidel Castro overthrew the corrupt, American-supported dictator Batista and started nationalizing American-owned businesses.
• This move angered the USA, which retaliated by cutting off aid to Cuba and banning imports of Cuban sugar, a crucial blow to Cuba's economy.
• Desperate for support, Castro turned to the USSR, leading to an agreement in 1960 where the USSR promised to buy 1 million tonnes of Cuban sugar annually. Over time, Castro shifted from being a nationalist to a Communist.
• As relations between Cuba and the USA soured, Cuba's ties with the USSR strengthened, especially after the USA severed diplomatic relations with Cuba in January 1961.

Bay of Pigs Invasion:

• Believing Cuba was now firmly communist, President John F. Kennedy approved a plan by former supporters of Batista to invade Cuba, with support from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
• In April 1961, about 1,400 invaders landed at the Bay of Pigs, but the poorly planned operation was swiftly defeated by Castro's forces.
• Following this, Castro declared Cuba a Marxist state and Kennedy intensified efforts to undermine Castro’s regime through various means, including sinking Cuban ships and sabotaging installations.
• In response, Castro sought military assistance from the USSR.

Cuban Missile Crisis:

• Khrushchev decided to install nuclear missiles in Cuba, aimed at the USA. This was partly a response to the USA's earlier deployment of Jupiter missiles in Turkey and a show of support for Castro.
• In October 1962, American spy planes discovered missile sites under construction in Cuba, escalating tensions.
• Despite military advisors urging for air strikes, Kennedy opted for a more cautious approach, including a blockade of Cuba and demands for the dismantling of missile sites.
• After tense negotiations, a compromise was reached: Khrushchev would remove the missiles in exchange for Kennedy's promise not to invade Cuba and the secret disarmament of Jupiter missiles in Turkey.
• The crisis highlighted the dangers of nuclear warfare and led to the establishment of a hotline between Moscow and Washington and the signing of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
• Initially, Kennedy was praised for his handling of the crisis, but later historians criticized him for provoking the crisis and missing an opportunity to resolve the Cuban issue decisively.
• Khrushchev, on the other hand, faced a loss of prestige, especially after being ousted in 1964.

Nature of the Cold War (1948-1962)

During the period of 1948-1961, the Cold War saw significant developments, including the death of Stalin, the rise of Communism in the Far East, the assertion of Soviet rule in Eastern Europe, increased espionage between the USA and USSR, and the physical separation of East and West Berlin.

Historians have various interpretations of the Cold War during this time:

• After Stalin's death in 1953, there was a slight improvement in East-West relations, although tensions remained.
• Khrushchev's energetic leadership and willingness to take risks left a lasting impact during these years.
• The construction of the Berlin Wall not only divided the city but also became a powerful symbol of the division between the communist East and democratic West.
• The USA viewed it as essential to resist the spread of communism globally, which during the 1960s brought them close to nuclear war.
• It became evident to capitalist nations that, despite attempts at coexistence, Khrushchev aimed to prove that communism could rival and surpass the West.
• The Cold War was characterized by a mix of ideological fervor and ruthless power politics.