Environment & Ecology - 2 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

Meeting Emission Norms: Coal based Power Plants

Key Points

• The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) had in 2015 set new emission norms and fixed a deadline to meet it. 
• India initially had set a 2017 deadline for thermal power plants to comply with emissions standards for installing Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) units that cut emissions of toxic sulphur dioxide. 
• This was later changed to varying deadlines for different regions, ending in 2022.

Categorisation of Power Plants 

• Category A: The power plants which have to meet the December 2022 target are those which are located within 10 km radius of the National Capital Region (NCR) or cities having millionplus population. 
• There are 79 coal-based power plants in this category as per a categorisation list of a task force, constituted by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). 
• Category B and C: 68 power plants have been put in Category B (compliance deadline of December 2023) and 449 in Category C (compliance deadline of December 2024). 
• The power plants which are located within 10 km radius of critically polluted areas or non-attainment cities fall under category B while the rest others (75% of total) fall in category C. 
• CSE Analysis: Major Defaulters: Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. 
• These defaulting stations are run largely by the respective state governments. At least 17 Indian states have coal-based thermal power stations. 
• A state-wise comparison highlighted the following: Except for Assam (AS), none of the other states among these 17 will 100% comply with the stipulated deadlines. This state has a 750-megawatt power station that makes it an insignificant per cent of total coal capacity. 
• State-run units on the wrong: A majority of the coal thermal power capacity that is likely to meet the norms belongs to the central sector followed by the private sector. Among the plants belonging to the state sector, some have floated the tender or at various stages of a feasibility study or simply have not framed any action plan to date.

Impact of Penalty Mechanism
The penalty imposed on non-compliant units will be more feasible to pay rather than bearing the legalised cost of retrofit of pollution control equipment (FGD) to meet the new norms.

• The April 2021 notification also introduced a penalty mechanism or environmental compensation for plants that will not meet the respective deadlines, in addition to revising the deadlines. 
• The environmental compensation that will be levied too will fail to act as deterrence for this expected non-compliance as it is too meagre as compared to the cost of effective emission control by a coal thermal power plant. 
• Sulfur Dioxide Pollution Source: The largest source of SO₂ in the atmosphere is the burning of fossil fuels by power plants and other industrial facilities. 
• Smaller sources of SO₂ emissions include: industrial processes such as extracting metal from ore; natural sources such as volcanoes; and locomotives, ships and other vehicles and heavy equipment that burn fuel with a high sulfur content. 
• Impact: SO₂ can affect both health and the environment. 
• Short-term exposures to SO₂ can harm the human respiratory system and make breathing difficult. People with asthma, particularly children, are sensitive to these effects of SO₂. 
• SO₂ emissions that lead to high concentrations of SO₂ in the air generally also lead to the formation of other sulfur oxides (SOx). SOx can react with other compounds in the atmosphere to form small particles. These particles contribute to Particulate Matter (PM) pollution. Small particles may penetrate deeply into the lungs and in sufficient quantities can contribute to health problems.

India’s Case 

• India’s sulphur dioxide (SO₂ ) emissions recorded a significant decline of approximately 6% in 2019 compared to 2018, the steepest drop in four years, according to a report from Greenpeace India and the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA).
• However, India remained the largest emitter of SO₂. 
• Air Quality sub-index has been evolved for eight pollutants (PM₁₀, PM_2.5, NO₂, SO₂, CO, O₃, NH₃, and Pb) for which short-term (upto 24-hours) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are prescribed.

Bioenergy Crops Create Cooling Effect on Cultivated Areas
A new study has found that converting annual crops to perennial bioenergy crops can induce a cooling effect on the areas where they are cultivated.

• The researchers simulated the biophysical climate impact of a range of future bioenergy crop cultivation scenarios. Eucalyptus, poplar, willow, miscanthus and switchgrass were the bioenergy crops used in the study. 
• The study also demonstrated the importance of the crop type choice, the original land use type upon which bioenergy crops are expanded, the total cultivation area and its spatial distribution patterns. Bioenergy Crops Crops from which Biofuels are produced or manufactured are called Biofuel crops or Bioenergy Crops. “Energy crops” is a term used to describe biofuel crops. 
• Wheat, corn, main edible oilseeds/edible oils, sugarcane, and other crops are among them. Biofuels have a number of advantages over fossil fuels, including the ability to burn cleaner and emit fewer pollutants and greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the sky. They’re also environmentally friendly, and energy corporations frequently mix Biofuels with gasoline.

Key Points

• −0.08 ~ +0.05 Global Net Energy Change: Cultivation area under bioenergy crops occupies 3.8% ± 0.5% of the global total land area, but they exert strong regional biophysical effects, leading to a global net change in air temperature of −0.08 ~ +0.05 degrees Celsius. 
• Global air temperature will decrease by 0.03~0.08 °C, with strong regional contrasts and inter-annual variability, after 50 years of large-scale bioenergy crop cultivation. 
• Can Impact Carbon Capture and Storage: Large-scale bioenergy crop cultivation with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) has been identified as a major negative emission technology (NET) for removing CO2 from the atmosphere. 
• Large Spatial Variations: Large-scale bioenergy crop cultivation induces a biophysical cooling effect at the global scale, but the air temperature change has strong spatial variations and inter-annual variability. 
• Temperature changes in the bioenergy crop scenarios may have very large spatial variations and important climate teleconnections to other areas of the globe. 
• Protect Permafrost from Thawing: Strong cooling effects in Eurasia, between 60°N and 80°N, may protect permafrost from thawing or reduce methane emissions from wetlands. 
• Permafrost is any ground that remains completely frozen—32°F (0°C) or colder—for at least two years straight. 
• Eucalypt is Superior to Switchgrass: Cultivating eucalypt shows generally cooling effects that are more robust than if switchgrass is used as the main bioenergy crop, implying that eucalypt is superior to switchgrass in cooling the lands biophysically. 
• Cooling effects are more for eucalypt and the greatest warming effects are seen for switchgrass. 
• Replacing forests with switchgrass not only results in biophysical warming effects but could also release more carbon through deforestation than converting other short vegetation to bioenergy crops.

India State of Forest Report-2021

• In October, 2021 an amendment was proposed by MoEFCC to the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 to bring significant changes to forest governance in India.

Key Points

• About: It is an assessment of India’s forest and tree cover, published every two years by the Forest Survey of India. 
• The first survey was published in 1987, and ISFR 2021 is the 17th. 
• India is one of the few countries in the world that brings out such a survey every two years, and this is widely considered comprehensive and robust. 
• The ISFR is used in planning and formulation of policies in forest management as well as forestry and agroforestry sectors. 
• Three categories of forests are surveyed – very dense forests (canopy density over 70%), moderately dense forests (40-70%) and open forests (10-40%). 
• Scrubs (canopy density less than 10%) are also surveyed but not categorised as forests. 
• New Features of ISFR 2021: It has for the first time assessed forest cover in tiger reserves, tiger corridors and the Gir forest which houses the Asiatic lion.
• The forest cover in tiger corridors has increased by 37.15 sq km (0.32%) between 2011-2021, but decreased by 22.6 sq km (0.04%) in tiger reserves.
• Forest cover has increased in 20 tiger reserves in these 10 years, and decreased in 32. 
• Buxa (West Bengal), Anamalai (Tamil Nadu) and Indravati reserves (Chhattisgarh) have shown an increase in forest cover while the highest losses have been found in Kawal (Telangana), Bhadra (Karnataka) and the Sunderbans reserves (West Bengal). 
• Pakke Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh has the highest forest cover, at nearly 97%.

Findings of the Report: Increment in Area

• The forest and tree cover in the country continues to increase with an additional cover of 1,540 square kilometres over the past two years. India’s forest cover is now 7,13,789 square kilometres, 21.71% of the country’s geographical area, an increase from 21.67% in 2019. Tree cover has increased by 721 sq km. 
• Tree cover is defined as all tree patches of size less than one hectare occurring outside the recorded forest area. This covers trees in all formations including scattered trees. 
• Increase/Decrease in Forests: The states that have shown the highest increase in forest cover are Telangana (3.07%), Andhra Pradesh (2.22%) and Odisha (1.04%). z Five states in the Northeast – Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland have all shown loss in forest cover.
• States with Highest Forest Area/Cover: Area-wise: Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra. In terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area, the top five States are Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland. 
• The term ‘forest area’ denotes the legal status of the land as per the government records, whereas the term ‘forest cover’ indicates presence of trees over any land. 
• Mangroves: Mangroves have shown an increase of 17 sq km. India’s total mangrove cover is now 4,992 sq km. 

Forest Prone to Fires: 35.46% of the forest cover is prone to forest fires. Out of this, 2.81% is extremely prone, 7.85% is very highly prone and 11.51% is highly prone.

By 2030, 45-64% of forests in India will experience the effects of climate change and rising temperatures. 

• Forests in all states (except Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Nagaland) will be highly vulnerable climate hot spots. Ladakh (forest cover 0.1- 0.2%) is likely to be the most affected. 
• Total Carbon Stock: The total carbon stock in the country’s forests is estimated at 7,204 million tonnes, an increase of 79.4 million tonnes since 2019. 
• Forest carbon stock is the amount of carbon that has been sequestered from the atmosphere and is now stored within the forest ecosystem, mainly within living biomass and soil, and to a lesser extent also in dead wood and litter. 
• Bamboo Forests: Bamboo forests have grown from 13,882 million culms (stems) in 2019 to 53,336 million culms in 2021.

Concerns: Decline in Natural Forests:

• There is a 1,582 sq km decline in moderately dense forests, or “natural forests”. 
• The decline, in conjunction with an increase of 2,621 sq km in open forest areas – shows a degradation of forests in the country. 
• Also, scrub area has increased by 5,320 sq km – indicating the complete degradation of forests in these areas. 
• Very dense forests have increased by 501 sq km. 
• Decline in Northeast Forest Cover: The forest cover in the region has shown an overall decline of 1,020 sq km in forest cover. The Northeast states account for 7.98% of total geographical area but 23.75% of total forest cover. 
• The decline in the Northeastern states has been attributed to a spate of natural calamities, particularly landslides and heavy rains, in the region as well as to anthropogenic activities such as shifting agriculture, pressure of developmental activities and felling of trees.

Draft Policy Framework for Distributed Renewable Energy 

Why in News? 

Recently, the Union Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) released a draft policy framework on 14th February 2022 for DRE livelihood applications. 

• The aim is to achieve the objective of a decentralised and distributed renewable energy supply in the country, particularly for rural populations with little or no access to power. 

What are Provisions of the Draft Policy Framework? 

1. Committee to Monitor the Progress: 
   • MNRE proposed forming a committee to monitor the progress of DRE projects, which will meet at least once every six months. 
   • Within the committee, each member ministry shall nominate the main point of contact for inter ministerial collaboration.
   • Depending on the scheme being implemented on DRE livelihood application, the committee may co-opt additional ministries / departments as members. 
2. Digital Catalogue of DRE-Powered Solutions: 
   MNRE will make available a digital catalogue of DRE-powered solutions to be used by various stakeholders to raise awareness. What are the main Objectives Outlined in the New Framework?
   • Enabling a market-oriented ecosystem. 
   • Increasing the adoption of DRE-based livelihood solutions by enabling easy finance for the end-user. 
   • Encouraging development and management of high quality products. 
   • Developing effective DRE livelihood applications through innovation as well as research and development. 
   • Establishing energy-efficiency standards for high potential livelihood products 
   • Using applications powered by mini / micro-grids operating in hybrid mode along with the main grid. 

What is the Significance of Distributed Renewable Energy? 

• DRE and its downstream applications offer an opportunity to not only meet India’s climate and energy access targets, but also provide attractive returns to financial investors. 
• It also provides pathways for India to reduce impor tdependence on crude oil as well as create economic growth and jobs in the long run. 
• In addition, addressing existing policy and financing gaps would not only allow for better targeting and risk-hedging of government spending programs, but would also allow capital to be recycled efficiently, thereby enhancing both the duration and magnitude of the impact

What are the Issues with DRE? 

1. Lack of Technology: 
   • In order to use renewable energy in their livelihoods, people need access to technology and financing, which are not available to most rural households in India despite the existence of several technology options to deploy small-scale renewable energy-based livelihood applications.
   • Local communities in the villages often find it difficult to pay upfront for these innovations. 
2. Unique Challenge for Women: 
   • Microbusinesses, under-represented groups and women face unique challenges when it comes to acquiring assets. As a result, businesses that use operating expense-based financial models, such as pay-as-you-go or leasing, may be eligible for credit facilitation. 
3. Others
   • Lack of proper financing channels, consumer awareness, consumer affordability and quality products / standards are some of the major challenges facing DRE in India.

Greater One-Horned Rhino 

Why in News? 

Recently, a case of poaching of the world-famous one-horned rhino has been suspected inside the Kaziranga National Park in Assam.

What are the Key Points related to One-Horned Rhino?

• There are five species of rhino – white and black rhinos in Africa, and the greater one-horned, Javan and Sumatran rhino species in Asia. 

IUCN Red List Status: 

• Black Rhino: Critically endangered. Smaller of the two African species. 
• White Rhino: Near Threatened. Researchers have created an embryo of the northern white rhino by using In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) process. 
• One-Horned Rhino: Vulnerable 
• Javan: Critically Endangered 
• Sumatran Rhino: Critically Endangered. It has gone extinct in Malaysia. 
• Only the Great One-Horned Rhino is found in India. 
• Also known as Indian rhino, it is the largest of the rhino species. 
• It is identified by a single black horn and a greybrown hide with skin folds. € They primarily graze, with a diet consisting almost entirely of grasses as well as leaves, branches of shrubs and trees, fruit, and aquatic plants. 

Habitat

• The species is restricted to small habitats in IndoNepal terai and northern West Bengal and Assam. 
• In India, rhinos are mainly found in Assam, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. 
• Assam has an estimated 2,640 rhinos in four protected areas, i.e. Pabitora Wildlife Reserve, Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and Manas National Park. 

What is Viral Load? 

• It refers to the amount of genetic material, commonly RNA, of a virus present in an infected person’s blood. 
• This is expressed as the total number of viral particles present in each millilitre of blood. 
• A higher viral load in the blood means that the virus is replicating and the infection is progressing. 
• An infected person with a high viral load is more likely to shed more virus particles, in the process known as “viral shedding”. About 2,400 of them are in the Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve (KNPTR). 
• Protection Status:
  (i) IUCN Red List: Vulnerable.
  (ii) CITES: Appendix I (Threatened with extinction and CITES prohibits international trade in specimens of these species except when the purpose of the import is not commercial, for instance for scientific research).
  (iv) Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I. 
• Threats: 
  (i) Poaching for the horns
  (ii) Habitat loss
  (iii) Population density
  (iv) Decreasing Genetic diversity. 

What are the Conservation Efforts ? 

• The five rhino range nations (India, Bhutan, Nepal, Indonesia and Malaysia) have signed a declaration ‘The New Delhi Declaration on Asian Rhinos 2019’ for the conservation and protection of the species.
• Recently, the Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has begun a project to create DNA profiles of all rhinos in the country.
• National Rhino Conservation Strategy: It was launched in 2019 to conserve the greater one-horned rhinoceros. 
• Indian Rhino Vision 2020: Launched in 2005, it was an ambitious effort to attain a wild population of at least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos spread over seven protected areas in the Indian state of Assam by the year 2020.

Sustainable Cities India Program 

Why in News? 

Recently, the World Economic Forum and the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) signed a MoU to collaborate on a jointly designed ‘Sustainable Cities India program’.  

• The ‘Sustainable Cities India’ intends to enable cities to decarbonise in a systematic and sustainable way that will reduce emissions and deliver resilient and equitable urban ecosystems. 
• This initiative is in synergy with India’s commitment to turn net zero by 2070 as a climate mitigation response at COP26. 

What are the Key Points of ‘Sustainable Cities India Program’? 

• The program aims to create an enabling environment for cities to generate decarbonization solutions across the energy, transport, and the built environment sectors. 
• The Forum and NIUA will adapt the Forum’s City Sprint process and Toolbox of Solutions for decarbonization in the context of five to seven Indian cities across two years.
  (i) City Sprint Process: The City Sprint process is a series of multi-sectoral, multi-stakeholder workshops involving business, government, and civil society leaders to enable decarbonization, especially through clean electrification and circularity.
  (ii) Toolbox of Solutions: It provides a digital platform containing over 200 examples of clean electrification, efficiency and smart infrastructure best practices and case studies across buildings, energy systems and mobility from over 110 cities around the world. What is the Need for Decarbonisation? 
• As per the World Economic Forum’s Global Risks Report 2022, densely populated countries that are highly dependent on agriculture, such as India, are especially vulnerable to climate insecurity. 
• Decarbonization in cities is a real opportunity to keep global warming well below 2°C and cities in India can make an enormous contribution in reaching this goal. 
• The World Economic Forum’s Net Zero Carbon Cities’ mission is to create an enabling environment for clean electrification and circularity, resulting in urban decarbonization and resilience. 
• The program aims to do this by fostering public-private collaboration to bridge the gap across the energy, built environment and transport sectors. 

What is NIUA? 

• Established in 1976, the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) is India’s leading national think tank on urban planning and development. 
• As a hub for the generation and dissemination of cutting-edge research in the urban sector, NIUA seeks to provide innovative solutions to address the challenges of a fast urbanizing India, and pave the way for more inclusive and sustainable cities of the future.

What Initiatives are Taken by Government of India’s for Urban Development? Smart Cities Mission.

• Atal Mission for Urban Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). 
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U).  
• Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs). 
• Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework 2.0. 
• TULIP-The Urban Learning Internship Program.

Draft Policy Framework for Distributed Renewable Energy

Why in News?

Recently, the Union Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) released a draft policy framework on 14th February 2022 for DRE livelihood applications.

• The aim is to achieve the objective of a decentralised and distributed renewable energy supply in the country, particularly for rural populations with little or no access to power.

What are Provisions of the Draft Policy Framework?

• Committee to Monitor the Progress: MNRE proposed forming a committee to monitor the progress of DRE projects, which will meet at least once every six months. Within the committee, each member ministry shall nominate the main point of contact for interministerial collaboration.
  Depending on the scheme being implemented on DRE livelihood application, the committee may co-opt additional ministries / departments as members.
• Digital Catalogue of DRE-Powered Solutions:  MNRE will make available a digital catalogue of DRE-powered solutions to be used by various stakeholders to raise awareness.

What are the main Objectives Outlined in the New Framework?

• Enabling a market-oriented ecosystem.
• Increasing the adoption of DRE-based livelihood solutions by enabling easy finance for the end-user.
• Encouraging development and management of highquality products.
• Developing effective DRE livelihood applications through innovation as well as research and development.
• Establishing energy-efficiency standards for highpotential livelihood products Using applications powered by mini / micro-grids operating in hybrid mode along with the main grid.

What is the Significance of Distributed Renewable Energy?

• DRE and its downstream applications offer an opportunity to not only meet India’s climate and energy access targets, but also provide attractive returns to financial investors.
• It also provides pathways for India to reduce importdependence on crude oil as well as create economic growth and jobs in the long run.
• In addition, addressing existing policy and financing gaps would not only allow for better targeting and risk-hedging of government spending programs, but would also allow capital to be recycled efficiently, thereby enhancing both the duration and magnitude of the impact. 

What are the Issues with DRE?

• Lack of Technology: In order to use renewable energy in their livelihoods, people need access to technology and financing, which are not available to most rural households in India despite the existence of several technology options to deploy small-scale renewable energy-based livelihood applications.  Local communities in the villages often find it difficult to pay upfront for these innovations.
• Unique Challenge for Women:  Microbusinesses, under-represented groups and women face unique challenges when it comes to acquiring assets. As a result, businesses that use operating expense-based financial models, such as pay-as-you-go or leasing, may be eligible for credit facilitation.

Others: Lack of proper financing channels, consumer awareness, consumer affordability and quality products / standards are some of the major challenges facing DRE in India.

Greater One-Horned Rhino

Why in News?

Recently, a case of poaching of the world-famous one-horned rhino has been suspected inside the Kaziranga National Park in Assam

What are the Key Points related to One-Horned Rhino?

About:

There are five species of rhino – white and black rhinos in Africa, and the greater one-horned, Javan and Sumatran rhino species in Asia.

• IUCN Red List Status: 
  (i) Black Rhino: Critically endangered. Smaller of the two African species.
  (ii) White Rhino: Near Threatened. Researchers have created an embryo of the northern white rhino by using In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) process.
  (iii) One-Horned Rhino: Vulnerable
  (iv) Javan: Critically Endangered
  (v) Sumatran Rhino: Critically Endangered. It has gone extinct in Malaysia. Only the Great One-Horned Rhino is found in India. Also known as Indian rhino, it is the largest of the rhino species. It is identified by a single black horn and a greybrown hide with skin folds. They primarily graze, with a diet consisting almost entirely of grasses as well as leaves, branches of shrubs and trees, fruit, and aquatic plants.
• Habitat: The species is restricted to small habitats in IndoNepal terai and northern West Bengal and Assam. In India, rhinos are mainly found in Assam, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. Assam has an estimated 2,640 rhinos in four protected areas, i.e. Pabitora Wildlife Reserve, Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and Manas National Park.

What is Viral Load?

• It refers to the amount of genetic material, commonly RNA, of a virus present in an infected person’s blood.
• This is expressed as the total number of viral particles present in each millilitre of blood.
• A higher viral load in the blood means that the virus is replicating and the infection is progressing.
• An infected person with a high viral load is more likely to shed more virus particles, in the process known as “viral shedding”. About 2,400 of them are in the Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve (KNPTR).
• Protection Status
  (i) IUCN Red List: Vulnerable.
  (ii) CITES: Appendix I (Threatened with extinction and CITES prohibits international trade in specimens of these species except when the purpose of the import is not commercial, for instance for scientific research).

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I.

• Poaching for the horns
• Habitat loss
• Population density
• Decreasing Genetic diversity.

What are the Conservation Efforts ?

• The five rhino range nations (India, Bhutan, Nepal, Indonesia and Malaysia) have signed a declaration ‘The New Delhi Declaration on Asian Rhinos 2019’ for the conservation and protection of the species.
• Recently, the Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has begun a project to create DNA profiles of all rhinos in the country.
• National Rhino Conservation Strategy: It was launched in 2019 to conserve the greater one-horned rhinoceros.
• Indian Rhino Vision 2020: Launched in 2005, it was an ambitious effort to attain a wild population of at least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos spread over seven protected areas in the Indian state of Assam by the year 2020.