Environmental Problems | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Environmental Concerns & Contemporary Social Theory

The growing concern for environmental issues and their causes, as well as their consequences, has become crucial in contemporary social theory. The relationship between humans and nature, and the negative impact of human actions on the environment, has emerged as a significant issue. Additionally, the rise of environmental politics and movements challenges the current industrial and capitalist systems, which are inherently destructive to the environment.

• Air and soil pollution are critical environmental issues in India. Anthony Giddens, in his later writings, attributes these environmental problems to modern industrial societies and the developing countries' industrial sectors. He believes that the combination of science and technology in modern industry has led to the most significant transformation of the natural world in history.
• Ulrich Beck differentiates modern society from earlier ones by labeling it as the risk society, which is characterized by its catastrophic potential due to environmental degradation. In pre-industrial societies, risks were generally attributed to nature, whereas industrial societies' risks are attributed to human actions. The risk societies are characterized by increasing environmental degradation and hazards.
• When large-scale disasters like Chernobyl occur, protests break out, challenging the legitimacy of the state and other institutions that seem powerless to manage these problems. Giddens offers two explanations for the emergence of environmental politics: as a response to ecological threats and as a politics driven by ideal values and moral imperatives. He emphasizes the need for democratization of state power and civil society.
• Habermas views the ecology movements as a response to the colonization of the life-world. He believes capitalism is the primary cause of environmental degradation. All these social theorists suggest that in order to avoid further harm, unchecked scientific and technological development must be confronted. They argue that since the most significant ecological issues are global, interventions must also have a global basis. New forms of local, national, and international democracy may emerge as essential components of politics that seek to overcome the threats of modernity.
• Sociologists have only recently begun to explore the many dimensions of environmental issues in response to social reality. The ecological perspective reveals the unexplored dimension of crucial areas of sociological concern, providing a powerful critique of the modernization and development agenda. The industrial capitalist mode of production and consumption jeopardizes the resource base necessary for its existence and threatens human life itself.

• The growth of ecological politics and movements creates a new area of sociological inquiry that transcends the conventional dichotomy of right and left politics, class divisions, and national boundaries. It encourages activism within civil society and calls for a redefinition of the relationship between humans and their environment, as well as a reconsideration of the impact of human actions on nature.

Consequences of Development on Ecology and Environment

The impact of human ecology on the environment and its life-support systems, such as air, water, land, and energy, is becoming increasingly evident as the global population continues to grow. This has led to an imbalance in food production and a shortage of space, resulting in environmental pollution that adversely affects our surroundings. In order to survive in these conditions, humans often expand into new areas or destroy natural forests for their own existence and comfort. These human activities ultimately result in various forms of environmental pollution, which has become a global concern. Some of the main types of pollution caused by human activities are discussed below.

(a) Water Pollution
Human activities contribute significantly to water pollution, primarily through:

• Industrial waste and toxic by-products from manufacturing processes.
• Sewage waste containing decomposable organic matter and pathogens, which is often directly discharged into rivers, streams, and lakes.
• Agricultural pollutants such as excessive use of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides.

These pollutants not only harm humans but also negatively impact plant and animal life. Among these sources, industrial effluents are considered the most significant contributor to water pollution.

(b) Air Pollution and Noise
Major sources of air and noise pollution include:

• Industrial manufacturing processes, such as steel production, chemical plants, oil refineries, and fertilizer factories.
• Combustion from industrial and domestic sources, including the burning of coal, oil, and forest fires, which release smoke, dust, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
• Automobile emissions, which release carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and suspended particulate matter.
• Agricultural activities, nuclear energy programs, and other miscellaneous sources.

Industrial emissions, manufacturing processes, and radiation are the primary causes of air and noise pollution.

(c) Soil Pollution
Soil pollution can be attributed to the following human activities:

• Fallout from nuclear explosions.
• Agricultural activities, such as the overuse of inorganic fertilizers and chemical-based pesticides.

(d) Deforestation
Large-scale deforestation contributes to flooding, soil erosion, silting of rivers, the reduction of agricultural land, and desertification. Deforestation is often driven by commercial logging activities rather than by local communities who rely on wood for fuel.

In conclusion, various human activities have led to significant environmental pollution, which directly or indirectly affects human health, as well as the health of other flora and fauna, recreational amenities, and overall productivity. From the perspective of the UPSC exam, it is essential to understand the causes and consequences of these environmental issues, as well as potential solutions to mitigate their impact on our planet.

Ecology Movements and Survival

The modern era has seen a rise in ecology movements across the globe, which aim to restructure the use of natural resources to ensure social equality and ecological sustainability. These movements are particularly prominent in regions like the Indian sub-continent, where a significant portion of the population relies on natural resources to meet their basic needs. The adoption of resource and energy-intensive production technologies has led to economic growth for a minority, while undermining the survival of the majority. As a result, ecology movements have questioned the validity of dominant development concepts and indicators.

• Third World ecology movements challenge conventional political and economic notions, which are often confined to the market. These movements promote a broader concept of democracy, which includes the rights of non-human nature and marginalized human segments that do not participate in the market. Issues of ecology, equity, sustainability, and justice are closely connected in these movements.
• In India, the scope and intensity of ecology movements have grown as the exploitation of natural resources to fuel development has increased. This has been characterized by the expansion of resource-intensive industrial activities and major development projects like large dams, forest exploitation, mining, and energy-intensive agriculture. The most well-known ecology movement in India is the "Chipko Movement," which began as an effort to protect forests from exploitation by outside contractors and later evolved into a movement to maintain the ecological stability of major upland watersheds.
• Other ecology movements in India include the "Appiko Movement" in the Himalayas, which focuses on preventing illegal deforestation and replanting multi-purpose tree species, and a tree-planting initiative in the Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan to provide employment for former tree-felling workers. Additionally, movements have emerged to oppose the environmental damage caused by mineral resource exploitation and open-cast mining in sensitive watersheds.
• Large river valley projects in India have also faced opposition from ecology movements due to their extensive environmental impact, including the submersion of forests and agricultural lands, which form the basis of survival for many, particularly tribal people. One example is the movement against the Tehri high dam in the UP Himalaya, which raises concerns about potential threats to people living above and below the dam site due to land destabilization and seismic activity.

Development Projects and Their Ecological Concerns in India

This section discusses a few development projects in India that have generated significant concerns regarding their impact on ecology and the environment.

1. Tehri Hydroelectric Project: The Tehri dam, a prime example of the negative impact of development on the Himalayan geosystem and ecology, was conceived in 1949 to harness the power and water potential of the lesser Himalayas. However, the dam's location in the central Himalayan Seismic Gap, where the Indian plate is moving towards the Asian mainland at a rate of 2 cm per year, raises concerns about its viability and safety. The geological disturbances caused by the dam's construction might intensify and hasten earthquakes in the region. Additionally, the dam will obstruct the natural flow of sediments, endangering upstream settlements and displacing local inhabitants. The project has faced strong opposition from the public, and its construction is currently being reviewed.

2. Narmada River Valley Project: The Narmada river valley project is the largest in the country, comprising 30 major dams, 135 medium dams, and 3000 minor dams. The project aims to provide water and power to millions of people, but it also comes with significant ecological concerns. The construction of the Sardar Sarovar and Narmada Sagar dams has led to the displacement of hundreds of villages and tribals, affecting their traditional sources of livelihood. Soil salinity and water logging are also expected to increase due to the dams, causing environmental damage. Activists like Medha Patkar have highlighted these concerns, leading to protests and stalled construction of the Sardar Sarovar dam.
3. Bhopal Gas Leak: The Bhopal gas disaster, caused by a leak in the Union Carbide Plant in 1984, is an example of the exploitation of developing countries by multinational corporations. The plant, set up for pesticide production, expanded despite posing environmental risks. The disaster led to the death of thousands and left many more suffering from chronic diseases due to the toxic chemicals released. This incident highlights the potential dangers posed by industries, especially in congested areas, if safety precautions and responsible practices are not followed.
4. Chilika Shrimp Farm: Chilika, the largest brackish water lake in India, is a protected bird sanctuary and home to numerous species of fish and marine life. The proposed Integrated Shrimp Farming Project (ISFP) in Chilika threatens the lake's unique ecosystem. The project involves the construction of a 13 km embankment, which would disrupt the natural flow of the lake and dislocate fish routes. The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in shrimp farming could also destroy spawning grounds and negatively impact the local flora and fauna. As a result, the ecological balance of Chilika may be severely disturbed.

Participatory Approach for the Management of Natural Resources

The environment-development connection has become a focal point in the management of natural resources, as it reflects the conflicting demands of the global economy and the traditional rights and livelihoods of local communities. Various approaches for natural resource management have been proposed, with an emphasis on participatory processes and local involvement. This includes self-initiated user groups, formal community groups established through government initiatives, and institutions of Local Self-Government. These local institutional arrangements aim to shape choices, priorities, and bargaining systems in order to change state-community dynamics.

• Community management of local resources has gained importance as it is expected to protect livelihoods and lead to a more sustainable management of resources. Moreover, it often takes into account indigenous and women's knowledge systems, which are specific to a particular community or context. Women's responses to environmental issues are influenced by their livelihood systems, division of labor, and unequal access to productive resources, knowledge, and information.
• Local NGOs have attempted to build alternative management strategies for the local resource base, linking gender equity to issues of social justice, poverty, and indigenous people's rights. The arguments for social justice and local people's rights are based on the premise that local communities have a greater stake in the sustainable use of resources, and are better positioned to respond and adapt to specific social and ecological conditions. They also possess knowledge of local ecological practices and processes, enabling them to manage resources through traditional forms of access and management.
• In recent years, natural resource management and biodiversity conservation have emerged as major priorities for countries and donor agencies. People-oriented rhetoric and community-based natural resource management have become part of a strategy for aligning nations with global resource management initiatives.

 Conclusion

The growing concern for environmental issues has become a significant aspect of contemporary social theory, with numerous human activities causing pollution and ecological damage. As a result, ecology movements and alternative management strategies have emerged to challenge conventional development projects and promote the sustainable use of resources. Understanding the causes, consequences, and potential solutions to these environmental issues is crucial for ensuring a more sustainable future for both humans and the environment.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Environmental Problems

What is the significance of environmental concerns in contemporary social theory?

Environmental concerns have become crucial in contemporary social theory due to the increasing awareness of the negative impact of human actions on the environment and the need to address these issues. Environmental politics and movements challenge the current industrial and capitalist systems, which are inherently destructive to the environment, and call for a redefinition of the relationship between humans and nature.

How do social theorists view the causes of environmental degradation?

Social theorists like Giddens, Habermas, and Beck attribute environmental degradation to modern industrial societies, the risk society, and capitalism. They argue that unchecked scientific and technological development must be confronted and that interventions must have a global basis to address the most significant ecological issues.

What are some examples of environmental pollution caused by human activities?

Some examples of environmental pollution caused by human activities include water pollution from industrial waste, sewage waste, and agricultural pollutants; air pollution from industrial processes, combustion, and automobile emissions; and soil pollution from nuclear fallout and agricultural activities.

What are some prominent ecology movements in India?

Some prominent ecology movements in India include the Chipko Movement, which aims to protect forests from exploitation; the Appiko Movement, which focuses on preventing illegal deforestation and replanting multi-purpose tree species; and movements that oppose environmental damage caused by mineral resource exploitation and open-cast mining in sensitive watersheds.

How does the participatory approach for the management of natural resources work?

The participatory approach for the management of natural resources emphasizes the involvement of local communities, self-initiated user groups, and institutions of Local Self-Government in shaping choices, priorities, and bargaining systems to change state-community dynamics. This approach values local ecological practices and knowledge systems, as well as gender equity, social justice, and indigenous people's rights.